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THE OLIVE AND ITS PRODUCTS. 



A TEEATISE ON THE 



HABITS, CULTIVATION, AND PKOPAGATION 
OF THE TKEE; 



AND UPON THE 



MANUFACTURE OF QIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS THEREFROM. 



DEC 



30 

5r ® 7# 



QIC 



BY LEWIS A. BERNAYS, F.JL.S., 

CLERK OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF QUEENSLAND. ONE OF THE VICE- 
PRESIDENTS OF THE QUEENSLAND ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY, 
Etc., Etc., Etc. 



BRISBANE: 

JAMES C. BEAL, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WILLIAM STREET. 

1 872. 



'P 



TO 

THE HONORABLE ARTHUR HUNTER PALMER, 

PEEMIEE OF QUEENSLAND, 

This little work is, by permission, respectfully dedicated, as the 
testimony of the Author that the Government of Queensland 
recognise, and are willing to foster Agriculture, as one of the prin- 
cipal sources of wealth to the Colony 5 and that, by their sanction 
to the issue, from the Government Press, of this Handbook to the 
prosecution of a new and important industry connected with the 
tilling of the soil, they include technological teaching in the boon 
of free education enjoyed by the Queensland colonist. 



L. A. B. 



PREFACE. 



♦ 

The following letters will explain the origin of the unpretending 
work which I now venture to offer to the Agricultural Colonists of 
Queensland :-— 

Acclimatisation Society of Queensland, 

Brisbane, 1st March, 1872. 

Sir, 

The attention of the Acclimatisation Society having Been 
directed to the Olive as a production suited to the climate of Queens- 
land, and calculated to vary the products of, and to create a new source 
of wealth to, the Colony, it has been determined to introduce during the 
ensuing autumn, from reliable sources, a sufficient supply of plants to 
place within reach of settlers willing to test the capabilities of the 
tree, specimens of those kinds which experience has taught to be 
productive of the best fruit for oilmaking, as well as of the most 
copious crops. 

The arrangements for carrying out this object are all made; 
and in another month or two the plants will be at the disposal of those 
who are willing to follow the example, which the society will itself set, 
of making small plantations, by way of initiating a new and important 
industry. 

Simultaneously, however, with this action, it appears to be 
necessary that the colonists should have placed within their reach a 
Handbook containing information as to the planting and cultivation of 
a tree almost new to the Colony, and which, in Olive oil producing 
countries, receives exceptional treatment, unlike that of any of the 
fruit-bearing trees now in cultivation among us. In view of this 
necessity, I have, for some time past, been engaged in getting together, 
from various sources, all printed matter published, under the authority 
of names of more or less weight, in the hope of finding something, the 
reprint of which might satisfy the want referred to. 

I find, however, without venturing to question the dicta of these 
writers, defects of various kinds in their method of putting together 
the useful information they afford, which lessens the practical utility of 
their pamphlets. It is also apparent that in some cases important 
points have been overlooked altogether ; while in others a mass of 
statistical information, of little use to the farmer seeking a cultural 
and descriptive guide, weakens their value for that purpose. 

I have conceived the intention of endeavoring myself to 
disentangle the more immediately iiseful and practical information 
afforded by these and older authorities, and of offering it in pamphlet 
form to the agriculturists of Queensland. By simplification of arrange- 
ment, aided by an index, I hope to place before the beginner in a new 



vi. 



industry, that guide, especially to the earlier operations, the want of 
which, in a comprehensive and plain form, so often retards in new 
communities the establishment of industries suited to the climate, and 
adapted to the means and appliances of the settlers. I now do myself 
the. honor to inquire whether the Government will be willing (pre- 
suming that they recognise my fitness for the task) to lend their 
countenance and aid to the proposal, by having the manuscript printed 
at, and issued from, the Grovernment Press ? Such assistance by a 
Colonial Grovernment towards the establishment of a new industry is 
not without precedent ; and I may be permitted to urge that I cannot 
conceive a more useful way in which to apply the Grovernment Press, 
than in the promulgation of practical guides to the colonists in new 
occupations, calculated to increase their individual prosperity, and thus 
aid in the more rapid settlement, and enhance the material wealth of 
the Colony. 

I have the honor to be, 
Sir, 

Tour obedient Servant, 

LEWIS A. BEKNAYS, E.L.S., 

Vice-President. 

The Hon. A. H. Palmer, Esquire, M.L.A., Colonial Secretary. 



Colonial Secretary's Office, 

Brisbane, 22nd April, 1872. 

SlE, 

With reference to your letter of 1st March last, relative to 
the introduction of the Olive tree into Queensland, for the purposes of 
commerce, in which you point out the necessity of placing within 
reach of persons interested in its cultivation, a Handbook containing 
information on the planting and treatment of that tree, and intimating 
that you are at present engaged in the preparation of a pamphlet on 
the subject, especially intended as a guide to the Queensland agricul- 
turist, I am directed to inform you that the Colonial Secretary will be 
happy to advance the object you have in view, calculated to encourage 
and promote the formation of a new industry likely to be valuable to 
the Colony, by authorising the printing and publication of your 
proposed pamphlet at the Grovernment Printing Office. 

I have the honor to be, 
Sir, 

Your most obedient Servant, 

H. H. MASSIE, 

Under Secretary. 

L. A. Bernays, Esquire, F.L.S., Brisbane. 



Had I not felt convinced that without some guide placed within 
their reach, the farmers of the Colony would be unwilling even to make 
the attempt to establish the important industry which I am endeavoring 



vii. 



to launch ; or, upon looking round me, could I have found anyone else 
who, having the necessary acquaintance with the subject, would be 
likely to devote the time to such a task, I should not have presumed to 
take the lead in an attempt which the Council of the Society were 
unanimously of opinion should be made. 

I wish it to be understood by the Queensland Public that I do 
not come before them as an Author ; but as a fellow-colonist deeply 
interested in the development of the unrivalled resources of our soil, 
and willing to devote an experience of some years' growth to the 
attempt to encourage the establishment of an industry which would 
utilise many an acre hitherto regarded as useless for cultivati-/n, and 
which, if once established, would prove a source of great wealth to 
a country to which I owe a debt of gratitude. 

My readers will not fail to recognise gratefully the countenance 
and aid rendered by the Queensland Grovernment in this important 
project. 

LEWIS A. BEENAYS. 



Brisbane, September, 1872. 



TABLE OE CONTENTS. 



Page. 



Chapter I. — Description and Habitat ; and Introductory ... 11 

„ II. — Varieties 18 

III.— Soil 21 

„ IV. — Propagation 23 

„ Y. — Cultivation 30 

„ VI. — Harvest of the Olive 36 

VIL— Uses of the Olive 39 

„ VIII. — Machinery and Appliances used 45 

„ IX. — Manufacture 51 

., X. — Purification 57 

XL— Yield and Value 61 

XII.— Technological Teaching 63 



Appendices — 

Letter from W. E. Boothby, Esquire, Sheriff of South 

Australia 67 

Letter from the Abbe Eugenio Ricci, of Brisbane 68 

Extracts from letter from Hon. Samuel Davenport, of South 

Australia 69 

Extract from "The Land and the Book," by Dr. Wm. 

Thomson 70 

Tables shewing the number of Trees which can be planted, 
in acres of various shapes, at 16, 20, 30, and 40 feet apart 
respectively 72 

Index to Illustrations 73 

Illustrations. 

Genebal Index. 



LIST OP AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 



+ 

The Vegetable World, by Louis Figuier. 

Chambers' Encyclopcedia, 1868. 

Paxton's Botanical Dictionary, 1868. 

Bhind's Vegetable Kingdom, 1868. 

Lindley and Moore's Treasury of Botany. 

Downing's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. 

Dr. Hassall's " Food and its Adulterations." 

Simmonds' Vegetable Kingdom. 

Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. 

lire's Dictionary of Arts, &c. 

McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary. 

Boyle's Manual of Materia Medica. 

Balfour's Botany. 

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening. 
Lindley's Theory and Practice of Horticulture. 
Byrne's Cosas de Espana. 
Pliny's Natural History. 

" Nuoro Corso completo d'Agricoltura, teorica e pratica," — Padova, 
1819. 

The Land and the Book, by Dr. Thomson. 
Loudon's Encyclopcedia of Agriculture. 
Mr. Jules Joubert, Sydney. 

Sir Wm. Macarthur, of Camden, New South Wales. 
Mr. W. E. Boothby, South Australia. 
Hon. Samuel Davenport, South Australia. 
Lieut.-Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell. 

W. A. Duncan, Esquire, Collector of Customs, New South Wales. 

Eev. J. J. Bleasdale, D.D., F.G.S., &c, Melbourne. 

Abbe Eugenio Bicci, Brisbane. 

Mr. W. Cairncross, Farmer, Bulimba. 

Messrs. J. and G. Harris, Merchants, Brisbane. 

The Hon. Wm. Thornton, M.L.C., Collector of Customs, Brisbane. 

Thomas Harlin, Esq., MA., Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar 
School. 



THE OLIVE AND ITS PRODUCTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
— ♦ — 

DESCRIPTION AND HABITAT, AND INTRO- 
DUCTORY. 

Olea Europe a*, The Common Olive, belonging to the 
natural order of Oleacece, is, in its wild state, little more 
than a shrub, thorny and unattractive in appearance; 
but, by cultivation, has become a tree varying according 
to species, at maturity, from twenty to forty feet in 
height, and though sober of aspect, and of peculiar tint, 
is by no means destitute of beauty. The tree is an 
evergreen with leaves somewhat leathery in appearance, 
the upper surface being of a subdued rich green color 
peculiar to the Olive, which has given its name to the 
tint ; the under side being minutely scaly and of a 
whitish-grey. This is said to be observed in a remark- 
able manner when the lightest breeze is passing through 
the valleys of olive- gardens, the effect being by one 
author prettily likened to a silver cloud gliding across 
the landscape. A somewhat similar effect, upon a smaller 
scale, may be witnessed with the beautiful Silver Poplar ; 
but in a more intensified degree, owing to the dazzling 
whiteness of the under side of the leaf of that tree. 
The leaves are opposite, and, in shape, either oblong or 
lanceolate, and entire. The small white flowers are in 
axillary bunches, or in thyrsi at the ends of the twigs, 
drooping when at maturity. The fruit {see Illustration 



* From t&e Greek, EXata, olive. 



12 



A) is a drupe, with a unilocular stone ; the pericarp, 
shell, and kernel each containing, hut in different pro- 
portions, a fixed oil, the existence of which constitutes 
the great commercial value of the tree. To the same 
natural order belong the Lilac, the Ash, and the 
Privet. The Olive is by some supposed to have been 
originally a native of Greece, by others of Syria, &c. ; 
but the species is found widely distributed in nearly all 
the temperate parts of the globe. It will mature its 
fruit neither in very cold nor very hot climates, although 
the tree is to be found in both. But, though extremes 
of temperature are adverse to fruitfulness, the greatest 
enemy to the Olive-tree is frost ; but even this does not 
inflict material injury unless following immediately 
upon wet weather. The degree of injury from this 
cause varies, being influenced to some extent by the 
age of the tree. Sometimes all the tree above ground 
is killed, sometimes only branches here and there ; but 
the older the trees, the better able they appear to be to 
resist the action of cold. The roots, however, are rarely 
if ever injured by this cause; and the damage can 
therefore be more quickly repaired, by training a new 
stem from the old root, than if the tree had to be 
entirely replaced. 

In hot climates the effect of heat may be mitigated, 
and greater fruitfulness attained, by planting on slopes 
facing the morning sun, so that the extreme heat of the 
day may be either entirely shaded from the trees or it may 
fall with softened severity. On the other side of the 
world the Olive is successfully cultivated, in all parts of 
Spain and Portugal, which are not too elevated. It 
extends over Prance, south of the mountains of the 
Cevennes ; over Italy, south of the Apennines ; and 
Turkey, south of the Hsemus. It is grown on the 
northern coast of Africa (in Morocco, Algeria, and 
Egypt), in Hong Kong, and almost throughout the 
Republic of Chili. The Olive is the great staple of 
Corfu ; and its cultivation is rapidly increasing in the 
Southern States' of America, where it is stated that a 



13 



fair crop of oil is obtained from trees four years from 
the nursery, and a full crop from trees eight years 
planted. 

Ancient writers upon the Olive state that the tree 
will not thrive remote from the influence of the sea air ; 
and this opinion has been handed down from generation 
to generation, and is entertained, even at the present day, 
by men whose authority upon the general subject cannot 
be lightly regarded. The fact, however, that the Olive 
forms a staple product throughout Spain, even in those 
parts which are so remote from the coast as to be quite 
beyond the influence of the sea air, seems to set the 
matter at rest. The idea is probably traditional, and 
takes its origin in the fact that in the early history of 
the Olive, the countries where it was grown were*chiefiy 
maritime. It is still not inconsistent to suppose that sea 
air is beneficial to the tree; and the practice which obtains 
among some of the Portuguese oil-growers of using sea 
sand in making their plantations, may be well worth 
our attention in considering the suitableness of the Olive 
for some parts of Queensland. Baron Eerdinand von 
Mueller tells us that " the Olive is a hardy plant, and 
" hardly subject to any diseases which might render the 
" yield precarious while it possesses this great advan- 
tage, that it will not perish from neglect — at best, it 
does not require much labor or care ; and, unlike the 
vine, the mulberry, and other trees, if long neglected, 
will revive again as soon as the ground about it is again 
stirred and it receives attention, and will respond to the 
care bestowed upon it by yielding as before. It will be 
found presently, when we come to deal with the subject 
of soils, that by means of the Olive much land can be 
utilised which has been hitherto regarded as compara- 
tively valueless ; and when we bear in mind the longevity 
of the tree, its great productiveness, the manifold uses 
for food, and in various industries to which its products 
can be put, it is as undoubtedly the interest of the 
colonists of Queensland to test, as it is the duty of the 
Institution of which, as I write, I am the representative 3 



14 



to point out its importance and usefulness. It is possible 
that Brisbane may be found to be nearly the northern 
limit of Queensland for the production of the Olive, 
as it has been found to be the southernmost, or very 
nearly so, for the successful cultivation of the Mango, 
the Jaca, the Alligator Pear, and other trees. Under 
the auspices of colonists like Bidwell, Sir Robert 
Mackenzie, and others, and of the Government Gardens, 
many vegetable products of other climes have been 
found to succeed in different parts of Queensland ; while 
of late years the well-directed and carefully organised 
operations of the Acclimatisation Society have introduced 
into, and distributed throughout the colony, all the trees 
above mentioned, and many other plants of more or less 
utility, which are now common in our gardens. I need 
hardly dwell upon the vastly greater importance to us, 
than the introduction of mere fruits and vegetables, of 
establishing in our midst such a source of wealth as the 
Olive. We know that it thrives in Egypt, a country 
still hotter and drier than Queensland ; and the follow- 
ing letter from an intelligent farmer near Brisbane will 
place beyond doubt the fact that there is nothing in the 
climate inimical to success with this valuable tree : — 

Bulimba, 28th May, 1872. 
Dear Sir, — In reply to your note of 18 May — In 1857 my land was 
trenched two feet deep, and, on the 10th June, 1858, I planted eight 
olive trees, all I could get from Shepherd and Co., of Darling Nursery, 
Sydney, at that time. Six were Spanish two-year- old worked trees ; and 
my trees are planted forty feet apart, and I have always used the land 
between as flower beds, and for a few pineapples this season. The trees 
have shed all their olives off the lower branches, only maturing on the 
top branches. Mr. Hill thinks it was owing to the early rains ; I think 
I am too much exposed to the "West for olives. 

Tours truly, 

W. CAIENCEOSS. 

Age of olive trees, fourteen years. 
Two-years-old worked trees, Spanish. 
Height of trees, twenty-five feet. 
Single stem, six feet to branches. 
Diameter, ten inches. 
Soil — Dark-red sand, and stones. 
Sub -soil — Eed clay and rotten slate. 



15 



I have gathered fruit these eight years. 

Fruit appears in September, October, and November, according 
to the season we may have. 

I have had -fruit ripen from February to June. 

The trees have been well cultivated. 

I have made no oil. 

I have pickled a good many. 

I have given away nearly the whole produce for the same purpose. 

w. c. 

In South Australia, the production of Olive oil has 
become a permanent industry; a fact going far to 
corroborate the opinion of Simmonds, who, writing in 
1854, says, " Wherever it has been tried on the sea-coast 
" of Australia, the success has been most complete. Un- 
" fortunately no one has attempted to cultivate the plant 
■ 6 on a large scale : but in a few years Australia ought to 
" supply herself with Olive oil." The Olive possesses one 
great qualification over almost every other known tree ; 
that is, its permanency — once planted under suitable 
circumstances, and it is planted practically for ever. It 
attains an almost incredible age, and has been extensively 
cultivated for an unknown length of time. Many 
illustrations of these facts, and much that is interest- 
ing in the history and mythology of the tree could be 
afforded ; but as I am writing a handbook, I must con- 
fine myself as much as possible to the purely practical. 

" If you want to leave a lasting inheritance to your 
" children's children, plant an Olive," is a common say- 
ing in Italy ; and an Italian authority describes an Olive 
plantation as "a mine on the surface of the earth." In 
Olive countries, the tree forms almost the entire support 
of the population — the present generation living with 
little trouble upon the fruits of the industry and intelli- 
gence of their ancestors. Por the same reason that I 
assigned for omitting other interesting matter, I pur- 
posely avoid a vast amount of Statistical and other infor- 
mation about oil countries, from which, in the course 
of my researches, I myself derived much instruction 
To the experimental grower of the Olive, this information 
is not necessary ; while to those who care for it, it is 
available without much trouble. To shew how com- 



16 



pletely in oil countries the population becomes absorbed 
in this one industry, I quote the following experience 
of a traveller. He says, " I have stood on the terrace of 
" an old baronial castle, at the town of Parobita, and 
" seen the Olive groves spread around me on every side 
" for many miles, like a dull sea of leaves. As the 
" whole wealth of the country consists in Olives and oil, 
" and as all hands are employed or interested therein, it 
6i is amusingly curious to observe what frequent allusions 
" are made to it in popular parlance. A man who is in 
" a gay humor is said to be merry as if he had a good 
" year (of Olives) ; and so with the reverse, when he is 
" in a bad humor. An improvident person who dies, and 
" leaves his family badly provided for, is said to have 
" left a fortune of Olive trees past bearing ; or that he 
" has consumed all the good years, and bequeathed the 
" bad ones." One of the chief features of the Olive as 
a staple product, is the increasing and enduring character 
of the yield. "With the commonest care and intelligence, 
the returns are sure and progressive. Nor need the 
farmer be deterred by the not unnatural dread of plunging 
into a new industry, the fruits of which cannot (like the 
favorite corn and hay crops) become available for turn- 
ing into cash in a few months. Let those who do not 
care to expend what is necessary for the establishment 
of a plantation, plant Olive trees on the boundaries of 
their cultivation paddocks, just inside the fences. By 
this means, they occupy no ground available for more 
immediately profitable crops ; and, while putting in a few 
score of trees in this way, farmers may try the experiment 
without risk of loss. When they discover that they are 
able to manufacture oil enough for the many uses to 
which it can be put on a farm, for family consumption, 
and as a lubricator, they will require no ' persuasion to 
plant on a large scale ; and will regret the half-hearted- 
ness which prevented their doing the same thing years 
before. 

As in the case of sugar, it is by no means necessary 
that each grower should possess his own crushing mill 
and press. The Olive can be grown and sold for crushing, 



17 



or be crushed on shares. Unlike sugar-cane, the crop is 
compact and portable ; and with common precautions, 
can be kept without deterioration for a considerable time 
after gathering — the great advantage of this last-men- 
tioned qualification being, that the farmer, after harvest- 
ing his crop, could cart it to the mill and convert it into 
money or money's worth at his leisure. 

Sir William Macarthur, in advocating the cultivation 
of the Olive for New South Wales, says — " If our agri- 
" culturists generally, our smaller farmers even, did but 
cc know what a comfort it is to have in a family a good 
" supply of fine Olive oil — how palatable and nourishing 
u it is — how it ought, and in many countries does, supply 
" the place of fat, lard, and butter, in cookery — how 
" much more wholesome it is, and withal how simple 
" and inexpensive is the cultivation of the tree, and the 
" preparation of sufficient oil for home use — it would 
££ soon become plentiful in the farm-house, instead of 
" being looked upon with at best but a momentary 
" curiosity." X 

The popular belief that the Olive is a slow growing 
tree, and that it takes many years to come into bearing, 
must be considerably modified by facts deducible from 
the experience of modern growers. By careful selection 
of variety to suit climatic and other considerations, and 
with intelligent cultivation, the Olive has proved itself 
to begin to be productive as early as the orange, although 
it takes a few more years than the orange before reaching 
the limit of productiveness. There need be no discour- 
agement to the grower from the slowness with which 
his Olive trees arrive at maturity, unless he plants indis- 
criminately as to variety, and does not pay reasonable 
attention to aspect, character of soil, and other conside- 
rations, which would be allowed to have their full effect 
in the planting of bananas, peaches, and other fruits of 
ephemeral value. 



B 



18 



CHAPTER II. 



VARIETIES. 

As far back as Pliny's time it was held that different soils 
suited different varieties of the Olive, and this opinion 
has been more or less entertained to the present day. 
In selecting varieties for planting, we may concede to 
climate an influence certainly not less important. A 
mere list of varieties would be neither interesting nor 
useful, especially as, like many other trees with numerous 
varieties, there is some confusion of nomenclature. 

After a careful comparison of the lists given by 
different authorities to whom I have referred, I believe 
that the end in view will be best served by quoting 
the selection made by Mr. Davenport, for the purpose 
of his paper read before the Chamber of Manufactures 
at Adelaide in July, 1870 : — 

" Of the departments of Var and the Alpes-Mari- 
" times, the neighborhoods of Grasse and Cannes give 
cc preference to a variety, variously called the c Caillet,' 
" c Cayou,' 6 Olivier de Grasse,' 5 Olivier Pleureur,' from 
" the gracefully weeping aspect of the tree. This grows 
" best in strong soils. It needs air and sun to fructify 
" its flowers. To secure all the oil, its fruit should not 
" be gathered until quite black. 

" 2. The £ Blanquette.' This grows best in dry 
" grounds. Its fruit is round, little colored when ripe. 
" Its leaves are shorter and less drooping than those of 
" the Caillet. Its oil is sweeter, whiter, and more deli- 
" cate ; but keeps badly. It is chiefly grown about 
" Antibes, under the name of Blanquetier. 

"3. The 'Boubeirou' variety grows tall, and has 
" few branches. Its leaves are rounded. Its fruit is 
" oval and small, and yielding little oil, but of a charac- 
" ter superior to any other. 



19 



" 4. The e Plant d'Entrecasteaux' is of rapid growth, 
" cares little for the nature of the soil, but prefers stony 
44 ground. It requires little manure. It ripens its fruit 
44 early, yielding large quantities ; but, dreading the cold, 
44 must be planted in sheltered situations, and should be 
" frequently pruned. 

"5. The 4 Gurnet ' gives an abundance of excellent 
44 oil, and succeeds in all exposures. 

"6. The 4 Caillet-roux ' yields much excellent oil, 
44 and succeeds in low bottoms. 

44 7. The 4 Hedounaou ■ stands the cold, gives ordi- 
44 nary oil, but is much esteemed for the conserve of its 
44 olives. 

"8. The 'Arabon,' very productive of good oil. 
" Among other choice varieties of the Var are the 
44 'Picholine,' for conserves; and the 4 Salouen,' the 
44 4 Elanquet,' the 4 Yerdale,' and the 4 Bouquettier,' for 
44 oil/' 

In addition to these, the same gentleman, else- 
where, quoting an eminent French authority, names the 
44 Colliasse," "Pointire," "Rougette," 44 Clermontais," 
44 Grosse Cornialle," as among the most productive 
kinds. The Yerdale, Golliasse, Clermontais, and Gros 
Cornialle, appear to possess the additional advantage 
that they never grow large, and thus their fruit is easily 
gathered. They may be planted sixteen feet apart, 
instead of the traditional forty feet ; an immense advan- 
tage, as thus each acre of land may grow many more 
trees. The Yerdale is specially recommended, as bearing 
fruit in the third year. 

The fact, that there is a great difference in the 
period at which different varieties of the Olive come into 
bearing, is beyond doubt. This appears to have been 
clearly proved in South Australia ; where, among some 
valuable seedlings raised, some have proved much earlier 
bearers than others. 

I think that in our early operations we shall do well to 
plant those kinds which have been proved by the nearest 



20 



of our neighbors* who have grown the Olive to be early 
and abundant bearers. After that, we may with great 
advantage avail of the experiences of South Australia ; 
although we may, perhaps, sooner or later select some 
other kinds as better adapted for our warmer climate : 
and this, if there is anything in the theory of the 
acclimatisation of plants, will probably be a locally 
raised seedling from locally grown fruit, 

* Camden Park, the estate of Sir Win. Maearthur, in the county of Cumber- 
land, N". S. Wales, is the nearest locality to Brisbane where the Olive has been grovrn 
to an extent sufficient for the manufacture of oil, and for testing different varieties of 
the tree. 



21 



CHAPTER III. 



SOIL. 

As the Olive will thrive, and be most prolific in dry, 
calcareous, schistous, v sandy, or rocky situations, it is 
obvious that, by its means, much land at present regarded 
as valueless for agriculture, and comparatively so for 
horticulture, may be utilised, under proper conditions of 
climate, for the production of a staple of commerce, 
certain in its annual return, and for which there is an 
unfailing market. Let the free selector of Queensland, 
who, by an error of judgment or want of experience, 
finds himself possessed of land of this character, take 
comfort. Not only can he get a certain return for his 
labor ; but he is actually better off than his neighbor, 
who, desirous of entering upon this industry, has nothing 
but rich alluvial bottom lands for his plantation. The 
Olive will undoubtedly flourish, even to luxuriance, in 
such lands ; but the man whose possession has hitherto 
been regarded as poor, and who has begun to get 
accustomed to be pitied by his neighbors for having 
made such an unfortunate selection, finds himself now 
in command of the position. His Olive trees will bear 
sooner and be more prolific than those grown in the rich 
soil ; and should he have the additional good fortune 
to have some limestone ridges, by all means let him 
select these for his plantation ; and thus, in addition to 
his other advantages he will be able to produce a finer 
oil. 

In thus comparing the suitability of various soils 
for the Olive, I must not be supposed to advocate 
absolute poverty as a desirable qualification. There are 
few examples of plant life for which a certain degree of 
fertility is not necessary ; and in the case of the Olive, 
if the soil is too poor it must be enriched artificially, 



22 



With this, however, I shall deal elsewhere. In South 
Australia " she-oak " soil it is thought would he good 
for Olives, hut I am unahle to say if this has heen tested. 
It is, however, found that any good vine soil is also 
good OKve soil. 

In recommending dry soils, I have of course implied 
that they must he well drained. If nature has not 
already done this, no pains must he spared to secure the 
result hy artificial means The Olive will not thrive in 
ill- drained situations ; and nothing hut disappointment 
can result from carelessness of this condition. Nor does 
it like clays, even if drained. Eor successful cultivation, 
the soil must he loose and permeable ; and, as a general 
rule, the deeper the better. 

Although excess of moisture is one of the enemies 
of the Olive tree, it must not he supposed that 
dryness of the soil in immediate contact with the roots 
is desirable. A certain amount of moisture is very 
necessary to maintain the health of the tree and for the 
formation and maturing of the fruit ; and this affords 
the principal reason why deep cultivation is desirable 
when it can be obtained. Where, however, this is 
impracticable, mulching the surface of the soil, and 
occasional waterings (especially during the first two or 
three years) in very dry weather should be resorted to. 

The sunny slopes of hills are stated by authorities 
on the other side of the world to be best suited to the 
natural habit of the tree ; but, for the reason which I 
have before given, in Queensland it is the morning rays 
which should be courted and not the fiercer ones of 
noon. Such situations would possess the additional 
advantage of protection from the westerly winds of 
winter, which, though not too cold, are sometimes very 
boisterous. 



23 



CHAPTER, IV. 



PROPAGATION. 

The great facility with which the Olive tree can b e 
propagated is not the least of its good qualifications. In 
fact yon may choose, among almost every conceivable 
method by which plants are increased, the way that 
takes your fancy or suits your requirements best. This 
phase of the subject is well illustrated by the origin 
attributed to a plantation in Morocco, where the arrange- 
ment of the trees was observed by a traveller to be some- 
what whimsical. It was said that these trees sprung 
from the pegs used by a squadron of cavalry, accom- 
panying the Emperor on a journey, for picketing their 
horses ; and that, being left in the ground, they took root, 
and were afterwards utilised as a plantation. Whether 
this story be true or not, there is no doubt that cuttings 
of the Olive root with the greatest freedom. If intended 
for a nursery, and the soil is not naturally sandy, some 
sand may, with advantage, be put along the spade cut 
as you stick your cuttings in. Eor this purpose they 
need not be more than from eight to twelve inches long, 
should be neatly trimmed with a sharp knife, so as not 
to bruise the bark, and only one good bud left above 
ground. The cuttings may be either from the branches 
or roots. Root cuttings are best planted entirely under 
ground ; but there is no special advantage in taking 
cuttings from the root, and the practice is not advised 
unless you are removing or thinning out your trees, or 
are at a loss for material from which to raise a large 
nursery stock of any particular variety. Of course a 
tree reproducing itself so readily from cuttings will grow 
from layers ; but in adopting this method of increase, it 
must be remembered that the form and general well- 
being of the tree, branches of which are laid, are pre- 



24 

judicially affected by the process until the layers are 
detached and the sap again allowed free and natural 
circulation. 

Suckers, which often rise from the roots of old 
trees, if strong, and carefully and neatly detached with 
a heel, make good trees, as they afford a well-formed 
stem to begin with. 

Seedlings can be raised by tens of thousands in a 
light and well- drained soil; but, before being sown, 
require to be subjected to some preparatory process, 
which will decompose the oily pericarp, and allow the 
moisture to get to the kernel. This is done in various 
ways. The seed may be steeped for twelve hours in hot 
water or yeast, or immersed in an alkali which, by com- 
bining with the oil, converts it into soap which is readily 
soluble in the moist earth. 

Mr. Duncan gives the following description of the 
method of raising seedling plants, practised by M. de 
Gasquet, on his estates at Lorgues : — 

cc Take, in the month of March {Queensland, 
(i September), some very ripe Olives, produced by the 
" finest and best varieties, deprive them of their 
" pulp, and soak the stones for twenty-four hours 
" in a strong lye, which will clean them perfectly. 
" This being done, these stones are sown pretty closely 
" in a sheltered place, in little furrows about half-a-foot 
" apart, and about two or three inches deep. The ground 
" should have been trenched beforehand to the depth 
" of three feet, and strengthened with good manure. 
" During the spring and summer it is necessary to 
" water it carefully from time to time, and to pluck 
" up all the weeds as soon as they make their appearance. 
" The little Olive plants begin to shoot about the month 
" of October ( Queensland, April). It will then be proper 
" to drive into the ground, between the furrows, small 
iS green branches, in order to shelter the young Olive 
" plants, which continue to shoot during the rest of the 
" autumn, and even during nearly the whole of the winter, 
f * unless it be cold. If frosts are expected, the young 



25 



" plants are covered with dry leaves, straw, or litter. As 
" in this seed bed, the young Olive plants, when they have 
" succeeded, will have grown close upon one another ; 
" the feeblest plants are plucked up during the second 
" spring, or if it is wished to preserve them, they are 
" taken out of the ground during the month of March, 
" (Queensland, September), and replanted elsewhere." 

The seeds used should be the finest fruit from the 
healthiest trees ; and, being some months in germinating, 
should be sown as soon as ripe. The object of raising 
seedling plants is two-fold ; the primary one being to 
obtain stocks on which to graft. A second one, and of 
great importance in a climate like that of Queensland, 
which is not so well assured for the cultivation of the 
Olive as many other parts of the world, is the chance which 
it affords of obtaining new varieties suited to the climate. 
Por this purpose it will be desirable to use seed, the 
produce of trees grown in the colony ; and a piece of 
ground should be set apart for the purpose of testing the 
seedlings, which (for similar reasons to those for which I 
have recommended careful selection of seed), should be 
the strongest and healthiest plants in the nursery beds. 

This experimental ground should be deeply worked, 
well drained, and generously treated. 

Grafting* the Olive is much practised, and is among 
the most certain methods of securing strong trees of 
approved varieties. The " Shield," " Cleft," and 
" Crown " grafts are all used and variously recom- 
mended ; but I am disposed to think that it is imma- 
terial which method is adopted if the scion and stock 
suit each other in point of age and size. Underground 
grafting in this climate is decidedly preferable, not more 
than two eyes of the scion being left above ground ; 
and the union will be better ensured by the point of 
junction being carefully bound with a strip of calico 
which has been steeped in a mixture of mutton fat and 
beeswax, after which the earth should be heaped into a 
mound above the graft. The operation should be per- 

* See also Appendices I„ II., m$ III? 



26 



formed in Spring when the sap is rising, the scions 
being of two-year-old wood. 

Seedling stocks may be successfully grafted at from 
two to six years old ; but in using two-year-old wood 
for scions it is as well that the stock should be not 
much more than the same age, in order that there may 
be not more sap than is sufficient to effect the junction, 
thus saving the trouble of keeping down suckers and 
surplus shoots. It is well known, by those who have 
intelligently studied the practice of horticulture, that 
the stock is sometimes affected by the scion; and it 
would appear that the ancients applied the knowledge 
of this fact by grafting, upon decayed or worn-out 
Olive trees, branches from a vigorous wild tree, thus 
infusing fresh vitality into the old stock. This process 
is described by Pliny as making a new tree " bloom 
" forth in youth from an old one " ; and he states that 
this is done " again and again as often as there is need, 
" so that the same Olive plantations last for ages." 
In these more advanced days, however, the same effect 
may be more naturally and easily produced by securing 
the tree from decay by high cultivation, pruning, and 
perfect drainage. Erom the same authority, we learn 
that the ordinary processes of grafting and budding 
were practised on the Olive. 

Truncheons are very stout cuttings, varying in 
length from one foot to ten feet, and in diameter from 
one and a-half to six inches, according to the method 
adopted in planting them. Truncheons are planted in 
two ways, each having its advocates. Under one method 
the pieces might with more propriety be called "poles " 
when they reach the length of eight and ten feet. But 
while the advocates of this method give the range of 
length from four up to ten feet, they have a correspond- 
ing difference in the depth to which they open the holes to 
receive them, which ranges from twenty inches to four 
feet. It is probable, therefore, that where the soil is 
deep and well drained, it is found preferable to plant 
deep ; and then in order to have sufficient height above 



27 



ground to form a good stem, yon require a longer piece 
to start with. Keeping then the above considerations 
in mind, the process is as follows : — In early spring open 
the holes to such depth within the above limits as the 
nature of the soil admits. I may here say, that should 
the ground and the labor have been available, it would 
be better that the holes should have been opened during 
the previous summer, and the soil left in the rough 
around each to mellow. Next plant the truncheon or 
pole upright, taking care to throw in a good layer of 
chopped turves and leaves, decayed stable manure, or 
any fertilizing matter which has thorougly ripened and 
is not too hot, and filling vol firmly with the soil which 
was taken out of the hole. Leave the ground round 
each plant slightly hollowed to facilitate watering, which, 
unless the ground is in a moist state, should be done at 
once, and repeated from time to time when the weather 
is dry. The object of enriching the bottom of the hole 
is twofold. It stimulates the truncheon to send out 
roots from the bottom end, and so ensures a well and 
deeprooted tree ; while it also assists mechanically in 
retaining moisture where it is most needed. 

The first object is sometimes endeavored to be 
effected by cutting near the bottom of the truncheon 
four or five nicks about one-third of an inch deep, which 
are filled with grains of barley, a handful of which is 
also thrown in ; but there is no magic about this method, 
while the recommendations above given are more simple 
and intelligible. In transplanting rooted trees from the 
nursery, or to relieve too thickly planted rows, the same 
precautions should be adopted. 

When the wood left above ground is long, the soil is 
sometimes heaped round it in the form of a cone, to 
mitigate the drying influence of the air before the plant 
has rooted, a hole, which is kept open by a wisp of 
straw, being made on one side to facilitate watering in 
dry weather. 

The advantage of planting truncheons in the way 
described (in the position which the tree is to occupy 



28 



permanently), is that you thereby save a whole year, 
and commence with a good stem to form the trunk of 
the future tree ; hut I need hardly say that there must 
be no scamping of labor or slurring of the work, which 
to effect these objects with certainty must be thoroughly 
and intelligently done. 

I come now to the second method of propagating 
by truncheons. In this case they are cut from one foot 
to three feet long, the short lengths being, I am disposed 
to think, preferable. They should be cut neatly, with- 
out any bruises or ragged edges in which moisture could 
lodge and clo mischief ; and are bedded horizontally 
four or five inches beneath the surface. The soil for 
this purpose should be fine, and be kept moderately 
moist. By this method also, the plants may be at once 
put where they are permanently to remain; but, as 
sometimes two plants will come from the same trun- 
cheon, and in order to secure exactly suitable soil for 
starting the plants into growth, this system of propaga- 
tion is better adapted for the nursery. The grower 
must not be impatient if the shoots are long in 
making then appearance, as much depends upon the 
season. In two years, however, you will have trees four 
to six feet high, with stems from one to two inches in 
diameter, according to kind, which are fit for planting 
out, and from which you will be able to take strong scions 
for grafting your seedling plants. These, of course, you 
have been growing in the meanwhile, if you want any 
considerable stock of trees for sale or for making a 
plantation for yourself. Keeping carefully in mind the 
heat of our climate and the dryness of our spring, I 
would recommend this method of burying truncheons 
in preference to the other for beginners in this import- 
ant industry. The other may with advantage, and of 
course will, be tried ; and with some additional protec- 
tion to the exposed stem from the drying influence of the 
air, may answer as well in Queensland as elsewhere. 

The distance at which the trees should be apart will be 
dealt with elsewhere, under the head of " Cultivation." 



29 



Propagation by Uovoli. — This method of increasing 
good varieties of the Olive is both curious and interesting. 
The word is Italian, and means literally, " little eggs." 
These are small knots or excrescences which form, often 
in some numbers, on the bark, especially of the upper 
roots. They are easily detached with a sharp penknife ; 
but care must be taken not to injure the tree. This 
should be at least ten years old, both because before that 
age it is not worth while examining for uovoli, and 
.because the tree should be mature, deep-rooted, and 
strong before such liberties are taken with its bark. 
When removed, they are planted like bulbs ; and, by 
much the same process of nature as in the case of the 
propagation of the vine and the potato by eyes, in due 
course become young trees. These uovoli are, in fact, 
embryo buds, or what are technically known as knaurs 
(see illustration B, * 'Knaurs or Embryo Buds"), the 
theory of which is that they have been adventitious 
buds, which, by pressure of the surrounding growth of 
bark, have been forced into woody excrescences. 



30 



CHAPTER V. 



CULTIVATION. 

In describing the methods adopted of propagating by 
truncheons, I have of necessity somewhat anticipated the 
subject, in some of its phases, of this chapter. The im- 
portance of thorough drainage for the Olive has been 
already pointed out; and the intending cultivator, bearing 
this well in mind, will, of course, understand that the 
digging of holes is not to imply that the intervals are to be 
left without being broken up. Where a depth of four feet 
is used, it would be impossible, without artificial drainage, 
to prevent the wet from hanging about the roots of the 
trees, unless the soil were naturally deep and very porous. 
It must be remembered that one of my objects in urging 
the cultivation of the Olive is, that thereby the slopes of 
our hills, the soil of which is unsuited for general cultiva- 
tion, may be utilised. In these situations any consider- 
able depth of soil will not be found; and twenty-four 
inches will, as a rule, be the maximum, depth attainable. 
If this be the case, holes will have no advantage in point 
of economy over continuous trenching, say to the width 
of eight to ten feet; with the additional facilities for 
drainage, afforded by the latter mode of preparing the 
ground, thrown into the balance. While such trenches 
will afford sufficient room for the health of the trees, 
these will still benefit by the breaking up, at some sub- 
sequent period, of the intervening spaces, either by the 
hoe or plough. 

Cultivation between the trees should be practised 
with caution. There is no mistake so great as to suppose 
that you are exercising economy by taking out crops 
from between the trees, unless you are quite certain that 
the latter are not being robbed of light, air, or nutriment. 
When the trees are quite young and cover little space, 



31 



a shallow rooting crop may with safety be taken off, 
provided that even then the seed is not allowed to fall 
within five feet each way of the trees. If this be done 
for a year or two with safety, it is as much as can be 
ventured ; after which, any crop raised, in place of being 
taken off, should be ploughed in, to restore what the pre- 
vious crops have taken out of the soil. It is quite 
possible, however, that the soil, in situations such as 
those which I advocate for the Olive, may not be suffi- 
ciently good to make it worth while to attempt a green 
crop. In that case, rather than waste the space which 
is not wanted by the trees in their young state, the far- 
mer might advantageously grow pumpkins, in holes 
specially manured, and feed them to pigs ; always remem- 
bering that the worst of our gravel ridges, when first 
broken up, will give at least one crop of sweet potatoes. 
While, however, careful cultivation within certain limits 
between the trees may be permitted, not only must any 
crop be kept well away from the trees, but the soil about 
them must be periodically stirred as deeply as is com- 
patible with safety to their roots. Illustrations C and D 
are introduced to exemplify labor-saving implements for 
keeping loose and clean the surface of the soil. (See 
Index to Illustrations.) 

Manuring with suitable fertilising substances, at 
intervals, forms an important element in the successful 
cultivation of the Olive, especially in soils naturally 
poor. While the tree rejoices in the mechanical loose- 
ness of sandy, gravelly, and stony soils, and in freedom 
from stagnant moisture, the Olive is not among the 
very small number of fruit-bearing trees which are most 
fruitful in sterile soil. Nutriment is necessary to its 
productiveness ; and if not already in the soil, must be 
introduced artificially. But manure also acts mechanic- 
ally in retaining moisture, and thus helping the tree to 
withstand drought, and effecting a saving of labor in 
watering; which, if the manure has been well dug in, 
may be done less frequently. The stronger kinds of 
manures are recommended for the Olive, such as pigeon 



32 



and sheep dung ; but the best of all for sandy soils is 
night-soil. But raw, unripened, hot manures of any 
kind are as bad for this tree as they are for most others. 
There is nothing to equal a good old compost heap ; and 
where the materials are procurable, it will well repay 
the labor and first cost to make one. This is best 
effected by excavating a hole of sufficient dimensions, 
into which should be thrown sheep and fowl dung, stable 
manure, soot, ashes, refuse fat, scraps of leather, hoofs, 
mine, leaves and weeds, and other substances which will 
ferment and rot. The heap should be occasionally turned 
until thoroughly incorporated ; and when mature, which 
will probably not be for twelve months, may with great 
advantage be applied to the trees, being well turned in 
under the surface. I am told bv a gentleman resident 
among us, that in the south of Prance, old rags of all 
kinds, including woollens, are largely used for manuring 
the Olive. 

I have said elsewhere that the Olive likes limestone 
ridges ; and, therefore, an addition of lime to the com- 
post heap, or its separate application, will soon make its 
effects visible in the healthy appearance and more 
vigorous growth of the trees. 

Having spoken of the value of a compost heap, I 
cannot leave the subject of manures, without remarking 
upon the prodigal waste of excellent material which is 
constantly going on upon our farms by burning the rub- 
bish "out of the way." Ey this system, a vast amount 
of excellent fertilizing material is every year destroyed. 
There is no farm so small that it could not devote an 
odd corner or two for a rubbish-heap. To this should be 
carried the refuse matter of every description from the 
farm — everything, whether vegetable or animal, that 
will ferment and consolidate into manure. This will only 
involve the extra labor of cartage, which will be repaid 
a hundred-fold. It has been objected that, in this dry 
climate, such heaps would take a long time to ferment 
into a fit state for use. But what does this really 
matter ? By adopting this system it will be found that 



33 



after the lapse of (say) the first twelve months, there 
will always be, under the outside surface of these heaps, 
a quantity of rich manure, and of a description excellent 
even for its merely mechanical uses. 

Where the soil is absolutely poor, the trees should 
be manured every year ; but, otherwise, every second 
year will be sufficient. Of course, if the orchard has 
been established in rich alluvial bottoms, or fat loam, 
and the trees have a tendency to over-luxuriance, 
manuring, I need hardly say, is not only not wanted, 
but would be wasteful, and inimical to productiveness. 

In applying manure, if it be in fit condition, it is 
most profitable to dig it in just before the rainy season ; 
as, by doing this, the tree at once receives the full 
benefit of the dressing. 

31ulcliing, especially while young, will be found as 
useful an adjunct to the cultivation of the Olive, as it is 
with other trees in our hot dry climate. Its effect is 
principally mechanical in retaining moisture, and in 
keeping the surface of the soil, about the roots of the 
tree, cool. Long manure — grass, straw, or any such 
substance — will answer the purpose ; but it is as well to 
select something which will gradually decay, and when 
dug in will act as a fertilizer. Care should, however, be 
taken that the material selected be free from seeds, or it 
will involve additional labor with the hoe. 

Pruning judiciously is of great importance, as the 
Olive has the character of only bearing every other year. 
The fruit is produced on the young shoots of the pre- 
ceding year ; and, in pruning, the object to attain is to 
secure a regular distribution of wood of the previous 
year from the axils of the leaves. In poor soil, where the 
trees would have a struggle to produce both fruit, and 
young shoots for next year's harvest, pruning is especially 
necessary ; and I am disposed to think that, in our genial 
climate, plantations skilfully managed ought to bear, 
with fair certainty, a regular annual crop. Some 
authorities consider that pruning once in three years is 
sufficient ; but this phase of the cultivation of the Olive 



34 



in Queensland will be better understood after a few years' 
experience of the effects of the climate. By the old 
method of leaving the tree to attain its full growth, any 
considerable crop was not obtained for many years ; and 
hence the character of the Olive for tardy productiveness. 
Under the present system, however, of cultivating com- 
paratively dwarf trees, abundant crops are afforded in 
three or four years. Under the head of cc Harvesting ," 
I shall have occasion to remark further upon the advan- 
tages of judicious pruning, and the cultivation of small 
growing varieties. A clear, straight stem, of five or six 
feet should be kept. Not only is the growth thus made 
handsomer, but the tree is more vigorous and strong to 
resist wind, and the fruit is sufficiently remote from 
reflected heat, and consequent premature ripening. 

The distance apart for planting the trees must be 
determined partly by variety and partly by soil and 
aspect. Under the old system, which was content 
with a biennial crop and left the trees to grow much as 
they pleased, a distance of thirty up to as much as 
forty feet was necessary. But of late years, the propa- 
gation of new and highly productive varieties, and the 
adoption of a system of pruning the trees to such limits 
as will render the gathering of the fruit, by hand, com- 
paratively easy, has enabled cultivators to bring their 
trees closer together, and thus to economise space and 
consolidate their operations. Orchards are now planted 
at distances from sixteen feet up to a maximum of thirty 
feet, according to variety; the distance being further 
regulated by the quality of the soil. 

While I must guard my readers against the false 
economy of overcrowding, the Tables given in Appendix 
V. will shew the number of trees which can be grown 
per acre at 16, 20, 30, and 40 feet apart respectively. 
Erom these tables will be seen exactly the area of 
land which is saved by allowing no more room to each 
variety than is absolutely necessary for the healthy de- 
velopment of the trees. 

But at whatever distance apart — all considerations 



35 



being duly taken into account — it is determined to plant 
the trees, the method most effective to the eye and for 
free circulation of air is what is known as " quincunx 
fashion," thus : — 

• • # • • 

• • • # 

• • • • • 

• • • • 

To summarise the foregoing remarks upon cultiva- 
tion, I may say that by intelligent study of the habits of 
the Olive, and careful attention to its requirements, 
there is no valid reason why, in four or five years from 
planting, it should not begin to repay the expense of 
culture ; without taking into account what, in the mean- 
time, may have been got off the ground by intercultiva- 
tion. A year or two before that even, the few Olives 
which may be gathered off each tree, may, in the aggre- 
gate, suffice to make oil enough for the family require- 
ments ; while from the sixth year onwards, it may be 
relied on in ordinary years as a sure and increasing 
source of wealth to the farmer. 

Continued moisture during flowering, will tend to 
render a portion of the fruit abortive ; but this is a 
cause of failure which will occur but seldom in this 
climate. 



36 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE HARVEST OF THE OLIVE. 

The fruit of the Olive is a " drupe " ; a Botanical 
term applied to fruits which are externally succulent or 
fleshy, with a hard- shelled seed. The plum and the 
apricot may be cited as other examples of the " drupe" ; 
but the word takes it origin from the Latin " drupce" 
meaning " unripe olives, " which are the type of this form 
of fruit. The shape of the olive varies according to 
kind. It is generally oval (or egg shaped), sometimes 
round, sometimes obovate (or like an inverted egg), 
occasionally acuminate (or tapering to a point). It 
varies still more in color than in form, according to kind 
and to stage of maturity. Thus olives may be seen 
green, whitish, violet, yellow, red, or even black. The 
fruit is produced in vast profusion, so that an old olive- 
tree becomes very valuable to its owner. 

The proper time for gathering is the eve of maturity ; 
presuming that the cultivator aims at the production of 
the finest quality of oil. If delayed too long, and the 
fruit becomes over-ripe — especially if it be allowed to 
fall — you lose in quality though gaining somewhat in 
quantity. But while I advocate the gathering of the 
fruit at the stage at which it will produce the best and 
highest priced oil, I would point out, as one of the 
advantages of the crop, that if, from press of other 
operations on the farm, the owner is unable to gather 
his olives when he would wish, they are yet available to 
him — even in a state which in other fruits would be 
regarded as rottenness — for the production of a- still 
marketable though not so valuable a commodity. This, 
however, is a matter which will soon regulate itself; 
when the grower finds that his more careful neighbor 
has made more money from his acre, than he himself 
from twice the area. 



37 



Another inducement to harvesting the Olive as soon 
as it is fit for gathering, is to he found in the fact that, 
by delaying too long, the productiveness of the tree for 
the next year is prejudicially affected. Early gathering, 
on the- other hand, relieves the tree and gives time to 
strengthen for another crop. I have already said that 
the Olive, if left to itself, will only bear once in two years. 
This is positively stated by ancient writers, who attribute 
the fact in great measure to the injury received by the 
tree in the practice of beating down the fruit. The 
belief has, however, come down to a period much nearer 
to us ; but there is no doubt that in skilfully managed 
plantations the trees do bear annual crops, and that the 
early gathering of the fruit contributes largely to this 
end. If the fruit is left on the tree too long, it is taking 
sap which ought to go to the formation of new shoots 
for fruiting the following year. 

The best mode of gathering is by hand. The system, 
elsewhere alluded to, of cultivating low-growing trees 
much facilitates the harvest. The gathering can be 
clone by children, and with the aid of light steps the 
fruit can be reached from the top of the tree. The 
system of beating the fruit from the tree with light rods 
of wood, although very old, and still in some places 
resorted to, should never be practised by the intelligent 
and painstaking agriculturist. However skilfully done, 
it cannot fail more or less to injure the young branches, 
as the blows must fall at random ; and what will suffice 
to bring down the fruit will also strew the ground with 
leaves and tender shoots ; leaving Nature with a large 
amount of repairs to effect, instead of applying all her 
energies to preparing for the next crop. The practice 
has the additional disadvantage of involving the picking 
over of the fruit in order before pressing to separate 
leaves, sticks, and other rubbish. 

Shaking the tree is also resorted to as a means of 
obtaining the fruit ; but though not so injurious as the 
beating, is not recommended. This practice obtains in 
Syria, where they have Scriptural warrant for the 



38 



method. The Olive groves there are in common, without 
fences of any kind, being everybody's property and 
nobody's property. Proclamation is made by the 
Governor of the district that the shaking time has 
arrived, when the whole population — men, women, and 
children — gather for the purpose, and the rule appears 
to be everyone for himself. {See Appendix IV.) 

A good method of ascertaining if the fruit is fit for 
gathering is to apply a slight pressure with the finger 
and thumb; when, if oil exudes, the Olives are con- 
sidered fit for the press. 

The largest fruit is the Spanish ; but the Olives of 
Andalusia are said to surpass, both in size and quality, 
those of other Spanish provinces. 

The harvest extends over six weeks or two months ; 
and as the fruit matures and is gathered it should be laid 
on shelves so as slightly to dry. Contact will do no harm 
so long as it does not bring about actual heating ; as ex- 
cessive fermentation results in inferiority of quality of 
oil. This part of the subject will, however, be dealt with 
more at length elsewhere. 



39 



CHAPTER VII. 



USES OF THE OLIVE. 

The bark, the wood, and the fruit of the Olive are all 
utilised; although it is for the latter that the tree is 
grown and forms so important an item in the productions 
of the earth. The bark is bitter and astringent ; and both 
bark and leaves have febrifuge properties called "olivile," 
and have been used in medicine, the former having been 
employed as a substitute for cinchona. Prom old stems 
a gum resin exudes, with an odour like that of vanilla ; 
and is largely used in Italy in the preparation of per- 
fumes. The wood is one of the hardest and heaviest 
known, weighing nearly 70 lbs. to the cubic foot ; and, 
as in the case of the " box," has the pith nearly ob- 
literated. It burns well even when green, being highly 
resinous, and gives out great heat. When seasoned it 
takes a fine polish ; and, being beautifully veined and 
spotted, and possessing an agreeable smell, is very 
valuable for turning and cabinet work. It is, moreover, 
not subject to crack or to be destroyed by insect life. 
The root wood has a great variety of shades, and is much 
in requisition for turners' work. 

The fruit, in a whole state, is used in large quan- 
tities, before coming to maturity, for pickles, and, to a 
small extent, in a dried state. The form in which we 
are chiefly accustomed to see Olives is in small bottles 
in salt and water, in which state they are used as a 
restorative to the palate. They undergo various treat- 
ment to prepare them for this purpose ; but while the 
receipts are numerous, the object and tendency of the 
various processes is much alike. The object of treating 
with an alkaline solution, before putting into the pre- 
serving medium of salt and water, is to extract a portion 



40 



of the bitter principle which would otherwise make them 
unpalatable if not nauseous. 

I select the following receipts for preparing "pich- 
oline" Olives — each being given by its author as pro- 
ducing a good and marketable article : — 

Receipt No. 1. 

" The lye is to be made as follows : — Take three 
f? pounds of fresh wood-ashes, six ounces of fresh quick- 
" lime, six quarts of cold water — mix well, and boil 
" gently for thirty minutes, keeping well stirred. 
" When the Olive is. full grown, but quite green, gather 
" carefully the quantity wanted, without bruising (of 
" the largest kind), and place them in a clean vessel 
" (not iron) pure from any greasy matter, and, when the 
" lye is cooled down to 150° Fahrenheit, pour sufficient 
" on the Olives to well cover them ; soak for about 
" thirty hours. Then, pour off the lye entirely (covering 
" the vessel to prevent the berries running out), and 
" rinse the berries with fresh cold water, and for three 
" days keep them in cold water, changing the water 
" two or three times each day ; then, having prepared the 
" pickle (salt and water) of about the strength that will 
" float an egg (the better plan is to boil the water and 
" pour it on the salt, leaving it till quite cold), and, 
" having clean bottles thoroughly dried, put in the 
" berries, carefully selecting them of equal sizes for each 
" bottle, shaking but not pressing them down, and 
cc pour in sufficient pickle to cover the Olives, leaving 
" a space in each of about an inch from the cork, which 
" should be good and well fitting. Cover with pieces 
" of bladder, well tied on and secured from the air 
" with some wax of black rosin and beeswax." 

Receipt No. 2. 

" The method of preparing Picholines, in Trance, 
" consists in putting the Olives, after they have been 
" gathered, into a lye made of one part of quick-lime 
" to six parts of ashes of young wood sifted. After 



41 



" having left them half-a-day in this lye, they are taken 
" ont of it and put in freshwater, where they are allowed 
" to remain eight days, the water being carefully renewed 
" every twenty-four hours. After this a brine is made 
" of a sufficient quantity of marine salt dissolved in 
" water, to which is added some aromatic plants. The 
" Olives may be preserved in this brine during a year 
" and more." 

Receipt No. 3. 

" Eor pickling, the fruit is gathered before ripe ; 
" and is placed for half-a-day in a lye of one part quick- 
" lime to six parts ashes of young wood ; from this they 
" are taken and well washed in fresh water, after which 
4 ' they are finally put into a brine of common salt and 
" water, in which some aromatic plants, such as fennel, 
" &c, have been steeped." 

Receipt No. 4. 

" One method of preparation in Portugal is as 
" follows, viz. : — The common practice is to allow the 
" larger and more fleshy kinds to become ripe, i.e. 9 black, 
" when they lose a good deal of their astringent or acrid 
" taste. These are then scalded in water considerably 
" under boiling, into which an ounce or so to the gallon 
" of soda is dissolved, and let it stand in it for three or 
" four hours — in fact, till it is cold. They are then taken 
" out and well washed in cold water several times over, 
" and finally put into a clean wooden or large earthen- 
" ware vessel, and completely covered with a pretty 
" strong brine of salt and water, and covered up from 
" the air." 

Receipt No. 5 

gives the preparatory treatment as in the preceding one ; 
but finishes by putting the Olives so prepared into 
moderately strong vinegar, to be used as a pickle. 

After immersion in lye long enough to extract 
sufficient of the bitter, the fruit is sometimes packed in 
tubs with a covering of lime, and thus keeps for years, 



42 



In the form of picholines, the Olive is frequently 
made the subject of adulteration, in order to maintain 
for the fruit a vivid green color ; and thus, by making it 
look nicer, to render it more marketable. Copper is the 
medium used for this purpose ; and the French Olives 
are the most extensively adulterated. In purchasing 
Olives in bottle, select those of a fawn color, and take 
care, in order to ensure this, that the bottle is of color- 
less glass. The Spanish Olives are, as a rule, the most 
free from contamination. 

I now come to the principal use of the Olive, viz., 
the production of the Olive oils of commerce. These, of 
various qualities, are used for various purposes ; the most 
important being that of food and cookery. 

It is hardly necessary to say that the liner qualities 
and those freest from rancidity, are most in requisition 
for such purposes ; and, when pure, Olive oil is whole- 
some and nutritious. 

In old Olive-growing countries, and especially in the 
South of Europe, the oil is employed. for many of the 
purposes of cream and butter ; so much so indeed, that 
the inhabitants entertain an actual distaste for butter 
as an article of food. In Spain, there is scarcely a dish 
into which it does not enter as an ingredient; those 
engaged in the industry almost living upon bread and 
oil. In other Olive countries, it enters into almost every 
' kind of cooking ; while we know, from our own experi- 
ence, that for cooking fish it is unequalled. 

In Queensland, thanks to our rich grasses, extensive 
pasture grounds, and to the enterprise of colonists who 
have stocked the country with well-bred cattle, we require 
no substitute for butter, which is plentiful and .good ; 
but the uses of Olive oil in cooking are so manifold, 
that its production by ourselves could not fail to be 
accompanied by increase of comfort and greater economy 
of living. 

A great wool-producing country like Australia, 
however, would find another very important use to which 
to put Olive oil. I refer to its application in the manu- 



43 



facture of cloth. Prom four to five gallons of oil (of 
some kind) is used in the preparation of every bale of 
wool. Our neighbors, in two of the Australian colonies, 
have for years been manufacturing woollen goods — the 
meaning of the term "colonial tweed," being well 
understood by those of us who have from time to time 
to look out for a good lasting material for boys' clothes ; 
and, in all probability, Queensland will, in due course, 
also have her manufactories of woollen goods, for which 
large quantities of oil will be required. 

Mr. Davenport says that at the tweed factories of 
Geelong two-pennyworth of oil is used to every pound 
of cloth ; and that in one factory alone they will be able 
to turn out annually 300,000 yards of three-quarter 
tweed. The average weight of a yard of this material 
being thirteen ounces, five yards will weigh four pounds, 
consuming eight-pennyworth of oil at 8s. per gallon. 
This calculation, carried out, gives the value of the oil 
required for 1,000 yards at £6 13s. M. ; or £2,000 worth 
annually for the single manufactory. 

In Cordova the streets are lighted with oil, the pro- 
duce of the place, and this is doubtless the case else- 
where. They have a saying in Andalusia, that "in 
Cordova it is always the same thing ; oil for burning, 
oil for eating — the good Cordovans have but one idea." 
This is, however, rather hard upon Cordova; for we 
know that it is also celebrated for its silken fabrics and 
its leather. 

Soft Soap is the result of a combination of Olive oil 
and potash ; and Castile soap, of this oil and soda. 

The Marc, or oil cake, being the residuum after the 
oil has been expressed, is valuable as feed for cattle ; or, 
in a country like this, where stall feeding is not resorted 
to, it could be put to its other uses of manure or fuel. 
For the former of these uses it is stimulating, but not 
lasting in its effects. 

The manifold uses of Olive oil as a lubricator, and as 
I an external application in surgery, are so well known as 
to make their mention hardly necessary. 



44 



This oil may be taken as the type of the " fatty" or 
"fixed" oils, designated also " bland" and "expressed" 
oils. There are other products of the Olive, such as 
"Oleine" or "Elaine," " Stearine," " Palmitine," and 
"Margarine," each capable of separation by chemical 
process, and having their respective uses in the arts and 
manufactures. 



45 



CHAPTER VIII. 



MACHINERY AND APPLIANCES. 

The plant required in the manufacture of Olive oil con- 
sists of a mill for crushing, a press for separating the oil 
from the solid portions of the fruit, receivers into which 
the oil is run from the press, and the necessary vessels 
for storage and for the market. Besides these, there 
must he a building of some kind in which the various 
operations are carried on. In the large majority of cases 
the machinery employed is of the rudest kind, the same 
form having been handed down from generation to gene- 
ration. Those engaged in the industry, especially the 
peasantry, are obstinately attached to old practices and 
appliances ; and are impatient of suggestions for im- 
provements, saying — " I do as my father did before me, 
and that is enough." The accompanying illustrations 
will shew that a very small capital is required for oil 
making ; and that the implements are so simple, that 
with the exception of the millstones, any intelligent 
rough carpenter could make them. The labor required 
being proportionately small, the whole expense of 
producing from the fruit oil such as will command a 
fair price in the market is comparatively trifling. Care 
and intelligence are, of course, indispensable in this as 
in other products which have to compete for public favor ; 
but in these qualifications our countrymen are not likely 
to be deficient. 

The Spaniards, as a rule, have not improved upon 
their appliances since the days of Pliny, whose descrip- 
tion of the process is much the same as the method 
chiefly in use at the present day. This is of the most 
primitive, and its merits rest entirely upon its simplicity, 
and upon the fact that it has been handed down from 
generation to generation. 



46 



The following description of the modus operandi 
among the Arabs, is taken from Thomson's " The Land 
and the Book," and will be better understood by the 
illustration of an ancient Arab press and mill- stones 
(see Illustration M.) : — 

" The m'aserah is worked by hand, and is only 
" used for the Olives which fall first in autumn, before 
" the rains of winter raise the brooks which drive the 
" mutruf. The Olives for the m'aserah are ground to a 
" pulp in circular stone basins, by rolling a large stone 
" wheel over them. The mass is then put into small 
" baskets of straw- work, which are placed one upon 
" another, between two upright posts, and pressed by a 
" screw which moves in the beam or entablature from 
" above, like the screw in the standing-press of a book- 
4 ' binder, or else by a beam-lever. After this first 
" pressing, the pulp is taken out of the baskets, put into 
" large copper pans, and, being sprinkled with water, is 
ec heated over a fire, and again pressed as before. This 
" finishes the process, and the oil is put away in jars to 
" use, or in cisterns, to be kept for future market. 

" The mutmf is driven like an ordinary mill, except 
" that the apparatus for beating up the Olives is an 
" upright cylinder, with iron cross-bars at the lower end. 
" The cylinder turns rapidly in a hollow tube of stone- 
" work, into which the Olives are thrown from above, 
" and beaten to a pulp by the revolving cross-bars. The 
" interior of the tube is kept hot, so that the mass is 
" taken out below sufficiently heated to cause the oil to 
" run freely. The same baskets are used as in the 
" m'aserah, but the press is a beam-lever, with heavy 
" weights at the end. This process is repeated a second 
" time, as in the m'aserah, and then the refuse is thrown 
" away. 

" The m'aserah is, however, the machinery used 
" from the most remote times, as we know from the 
" basins and wheels to crush the Olives, still found in 
" the ruins of old towns. The huge stones upon the tops 
" of the upright posts, prove conclusively that the 



47 



" ancients knew nothing of the screw, but employed 
" beam-presses, as in the mutriifs. (See Illustration 31.) 

" Beam-presses are also employed in the m'aserah 
" to this day, and I think the use of screws is quite 
" modern. 

" There is no process whatever for clarifying the 
" oil, except to let it gradually settle on the lees in the 
" cisterns or large jars in which it is kept. 

" Certain villages arc celebrated all over the country 
" for producing oil particularly clear and sweet, and it 
" commands a high price for table use." 

The Mill on Oil farms generally takes the forms 
given in Illustrations U, G, O, and _P; the only expla- 
nation of which required is, that the stones must be of a 
hard and unabsorbent description, such as granite. The 
reason for this is obvious, for it can readily be seen, that 
were the stones of a porous character, Ihey would soon 
become saturated with oil, which, becoming rancid, 
would taint all that it came in contact with. 

But, while the majority of mills are of this descrip- 
tion, there are to be seen here and there, on large 
plantations, and in mills to which no plantations are 
attached, machinery of a more complicated and 
expensive character. In these cases, steam or hydraulic 
power is not infrequently used. In Spain the crushing 
is sometimes performed by conical iron rollers moved 
round on an oil-proof floor, on two little margins to 
prevent the stone being crushed. 

There are also to be seen, but very rarely, steam 
mills ; but the crushing is generally done by the Spaniards 
in the old traditional stone mills. As they generally 
keep their Olives till in a state of putrefaction before 
crushing them, aiming more at quantity than quality, 
the inferior appliances, being less costly, answer their 
purpose better. 

Of late years, however, a new light seems to be 
dawning upon them. They are awaking to the higher 
profit to be obtained from manufacturing a superior 
article ; and a few more enlightened among the growers, 



48 

finding the injurious effect of fermentation upon the 
market quality of the article, extract at an earlier stage, 
and use the more rapid and effectual means of the 
hydraulic press. 

Oil milling in Spain is a distinct industry, as is also 
sometimes the case in other European Olive countries ; 
hut there also are mills on many of the plantations. The 
oil is, however, often kept for years in their big earthen 
jars, awaiting a good market. 

Screw presses of simple construction are generally 
used ; but the pressure is sometimes obtained by means 
of lever, or, more rarely still, hydraulic power. 

The whole process is so admirably described by Mr. 
Davenport, that I have taken the liberty of reducing his 
plan, and reproducing it in these pages for the benefit 
of Queensland colonists. To the valuable information 
thus afforded, the same gentleman has been ^ood enough 
to add plan and description of the receiver which he 
uses himself. (See Illustrations U, F, and X.) 

The neat finish of the building in Mr. Davenport's 
plan, is, of course, not essential ; and the beginner would 
do well to content himself with a much ruder edifice. 
Slabs, with a bark roof, would, if weather-proof, answer 
every purpose at first ; and a more permanent building 
could be thereafter erected out of the profits of the 
plantation. 

In the full-page Illustration Q, I give the whole 
interior of chamber devoted to the extraction of the oil 
still remaining in the marc, after the first and purest has 
been run off ; but such an establishment is as little 
necessary for the beginner or for the Olive farmer on a 
small scale, as a sugar plant of the value of five thousand 
pounds would be to the cultivator of ten acres of cane. 

The gigantic stone jars shewn (see Illustration J.) 
are capable of holding 1,200 gallons each. They are 
called Tinajas, in Malaga, are about six feet in diameter, 
and nine feet deep. The siuface is approached by 
two earth steps from the door. There is a double row 
of eight in each, said to be within an inch of each other 



49 



under ground. The intervals are filled with sand or 
earth — experiments with stone having failed, the unequal 
pressure resulting in breakage of some of these costly 
jars. 

The mill, shewn in Illustration 6r, was from one 
in use on a farm at Almunecar ; and, in the intervals 
between the Olive seasons, was employed for grinding 
white Indian corn into flour. 

The presses are extremely simple [see Illustrations 
F.H). They are easily made, and strongly put together 
of seasoned timber, are not liable to disrepair. Presses of 
a more elaborate character (as shewn in Illustrations 
NN 5 figures 1 and 2) are sometimes, but rarely used. 
The construction of these is explained fully in the 
Index to Illustrations. The small illustration I, shews 
the form of implement used in Spain for skimming 
off the oil and pouring it into the jars or reservoirs. 

The only appliance left to be described before pro- 
ceeding to the details of the manufacture, is the kind of 
bag used for enclosing the crushed Olives before putting 
into the press. These are made of coarse linen, horse- 
hair, open felt, rushes, or grass ; and, when filled, are 
laid one over the other in the press, to the number some- 
times of a dozen. 

But, while we quietly permit ourselves to smile, 
with a good deal of self-complacence, at the dull and 
easy-going peasant f Southern Europe, who receives 
with veneration the traditionary methods of growing and 
manufacturing the Olive, and will neither look for, or 
expect to find, defects in a system which was " good 
66 enough for his father," — are we quite sure that, with- 
out being aware of it, we are not ourselves perpetrating 
mistakes in our agricultural and horticultural operations ? 
.Do we, whether masters or men, amateurs or experts, 
enquire for ourselves into the rationale of various opera- 
tions and methods ; or is it not rather the rule to accept 
what we have been taught, or what we have read, with- 
out much thought, or any further care than that it 



50 



appears to answer the purpose ? I strongly advise all 
who gain their living by tilling the soil, as well as the 
agricultural student, to take nothing for granted ; but, 
should the meaning of what he is doing or reading not be 
apparent, not to rest until it is clear to him as the sun 
at noon day. This course will not only make the work, 
whether manual or mental, much more easy ; but the 
enquiring mind will often find rays of light at unexpected 
times, and in unlooked for places, which will dissipate as 
fallacies, old received practices or opinions. Our marvel 
at the Italian peasant, with his traditionary blunders, 
ceases when we observe the wonderful manner in whicli 
writers, many of them authorities, will copy from each 
other and perpetuate errors ; and it is only upon labori- 
ous comparison of the dicta of various authors that the 
student will discover the prudence, while accepting their 
general guidance, of testing everything he learns by 
his own reason, or by experiment. 



5X 



CHAPTER IX. 



MANUFACTUEE. 

In the extraction of the oil, there are two distinct pro- 
cesses, viz. : — (1) Crushing, and (2) Pressing-. 

In the first process, the fruit is by some completely 
crushed ; and by others the pericarp only is first crushed, 
and when the oil from that part of the fruit has been 
separately expressed, the more complete crushing is 
applied for obtaining the remainder of the oil. This 
difference of system arises from the fact that opinions 
differ as to the quality of the oil from the several parts 
of the fruit. By some it is held that the most delicate 
oil is contained in the pericarp, and that an admixture 
of that from the kernel has a tendency to render the 
whole rancid. On the other hand, there is reason to 
suppose that much of the finest oil that comes to market 
is manufactured without any such distinction being 
recognised. 

There is no doubt that much of the delicacy of 
flavor which characterises the oils of highest repute is 
due to the pressing and storing, rather than to the 
crushing ; while it is also influenced to no slight extent 
by the variety of the Olive and the degree of maturity 
and the condition of the fruit when crushed. 

The time for gathering the fruit, as has been said 
elsewhere, is the eve of maturity. It is overripe for the 
finer quality of oil, if allowed to fall. This condition 
being complied with, much still depends upon the length 
of time allowed to elapse between the gathering and 
crushing, and the treatment to which the fruit is sub- 
jected in the interval. There is no doubt that fermen- 
tation in the fruit should be carefully watched, as any- 
thing like excess impairs the quality of the oil produced. 



52 



On the other hand, no amount of fermentation affects 
the quantity of oil ; and where this is the main object 
of the maker, the Olives are often allowed to ferment in 
heaps for months, till it is convenient to crush them, 
when they have to he dug out of the hins to put through 
the mill. 

But a slight degree of fermentation, if unaccom- 
panied hy any material heating, does not appear to affect 
injuriously the quality of the oil, while it facilitates the 
separation of the oil from the mucilage. The extent 
to which, however, fermentation is allowed to proceed 
should he jealously regulated, as there is no doubt that 
beyond a certain point, the oil unquestionably surfers 
in quality, and becomes unfit, for the more delicate uses 
of food and cookery, to which Olive oil, when good, is 
put. 

By far the safer plan for the beginner in the in- 
dustry will be to gather his Olives at the right time, 
and to crush them as soon as he has enough together. 
In the meanwhile, they should be stored on shelves in 
moderate layers ; the most complete arrangement being 
one which will admit of a free current of air above and 
below the layers. 

The fruit is first reduced to a pulp, either with or 
without crushing the stones, according to the views of 
the miller as to the effect which this has upon the 
quality of the first droppings from the press, which are 
always regarded as the best. The crushing process 
should be conducted by a slow and regular movement, 
without jerking, in order that all the oil cellules shall 
be broken, and the press not be called upon to do any 
of the work which is supposed to have been previously 
done by the mill. The pulp or paste is then shovelled 
into the bags before described, which are placed one on 
the other to a convenient depth in the press. In this 
process, as in that of the crushing, the power should be 
applied steadily, slowly, and regularly, to afford time for 
the oil, as it exudes, to escape from the press through 
the proper channels. Pliny recommends that the pros- 



53 



sing be conducted under a warm temperature, and with 
as little exposure to the air as possible ; and the obvious 
advantages of these recommendations have led to their 
universal adoption to the present day by all oil-makers, 
except the clumsy and prejudiced who follow no 
examples but their own. 

What is generally known as "virgin" oil is that 
obtained by the first pressing before the application of 
water or heat to the pulp. This is run into water, where 
it is allowed time to deposit its mucilage, and, after 
being skimmed off, is kept separate for the finer use or 
for the more exacting market. In the district of Mont- 
pellier, however, the term is applied to the oil which 
spontaneously separates from the paste of crushed 
Olives. This oil is not met with in commerce, the 
quantity being obviously too small; and appears to be 
used in watchmaking and for similar purposes requiring 
extreme purity of quality. 

When of good quality, and especially when fresh, 
Olive oil is of a pale greenish color, with a sweetish 
nutty flavor much esteemed by those who use it. 
Inferior oil is of a darker color, being a yellowish or 
brownish green ; and even, when not sufficiently inferior 
to be rancid and unmarketable for food purposes, is 
quite wanting in the peculiar flavor referred to. This 
fruity flavor depends much upon the quality and condi- 
tion of the Olives when pressed ; while by some it is 
held to be affected also by the variety. 

The large and increasing demand for the best 
qualities, and the consequent high price, leads to adul- 
teration with Poppy, Sesame, Rape, and Cocoanut Oils. 
Such adulterations may, however, be easily detected 
by the fact of these oils not congealing at the same 
temperature as Olive oil, which when pure may be com- 
pletely solidified by freezing. The adulterating oils also 
retain air, when shaken up, more readily than pure Olive 
oil. There are other tests of a more exact character 
used by chemists, which, however, need not here be 
enlarged upon. 



54 



The finest kinds of oils have hitherto come from 
Provence, Florence, Lucca, and Aix; the commoner 
from the Levant, Mogador, Spain, Portugal, and Sicily. 
It is, however, significant that where the oil has 
a high reputation, strict investigation will, in the 
majority of cases, elicit the fact that in those localities 
the cultivation and manufacture are conducted with 
unusual care and intelligence. Nor does it appear that 
the costliness of the appliances has much, if anything, 
to do with the quality of the produce ; for (coming 
very much nearer home than Europe), I find from 
information obligingly afforded me by the Hon. Precl. 
P. Barlee, Colonial Secretary of Western Australia, that 
in that colony excellent oil is made, principally by 
Spanish monks, who adopt precisely the same course of 
treatment as is described by Dr. Wm. Thomson, in " The 
" Land and the Book," as in vogue for ages among the 
Arabs. Anything more primitive than these appliances 
(which are shewn in Illustration M) cannot be con- 
ceived ; and yet Mr. Barlee assures me that they have 
"answered admirably" with them, and "have produced 
as fine an oil as could be desired." 

To revert to the subject of "manufacture" to which 
this chapter is devoted — So soon as all exudation of oil 
from the first pressing ceases, the screw is reversed, and 
the bags removed and emptied. The pressed pulp being 
put carefully aside, and the bags refilled, pressure is 
again applied, and the process repeated until the whole 
crushing has gone through the mill. 

The Marc, which has thus been once pressed, is 
then thoroughly separated, and stirred up with boiling 
water, and the process of pressing renewed ; this time the 
pressure being increased, though still gradual and steady. 
This second oil is nearly as good as the first, but apt to 
become rancid in time. The principal of the oil after 
this second process, is skimmed off the water in the 
receivers ; but entire separation takes a long time, and, 
when it is complete, the process is reversed by the water 
being drawn off from below. 



55 



Once more is the Marc subjected to treatment with 
boiling water ; and it is at this stage that, when the 
stones were not crushed in the first milling, that process 
is now gone through, and the last of the oil obtained. 
This pressing is, however, regarded as of inferior quality, 
and is kept carefully separate from the results of num- 
bers one and two. 

The water which has been used in the several pro- 
cesses, and which still contains an admixture of oil, is 
conducted into large reservoirs, generally constructed 
underground ; and are called by the French, " Enfer," 
a word, which if literally translated, would grate some- 
what upon English sensibilities. Here it is left for a 
considerable period, during which the mucilage, water, 
and oil thoroughly separate — the former falling to the 
bottom, while the latter rises to the top, whence it is 
ultimately skimmed off, and applied to local uses of an 
inferior character — such as burning in lamps. This oil, 
taking its name from the Erench designation of the 
reservoirs used in its extraction, has the specific designa- 
tion of " oil of the infernal regions." 

The process of the second extraction by the aid of 
heat is in large mills sometimes effected by an elaborate 
arrangement for the thorough separation of the pulp 3 
and freeing of the oil. This will be better understood 
by reference to full page Illustration Q, with its accom- 
panying key. 

There are yet processes for still further extraction 
of oil to the last fraction, which it is unnecessary here 
to describe. These may be compared to the finer pro- 
cesses for extraction of gold from quartz, which in the 
early days of the industry were not adopted ; and indeed 
are still unpractised except in some of the older mines 
where large capital is employed. My object is to 
encourage the establishment of oil-making as a new 
industry ; and to shew that some of the processes are 
simple yet perfectly efficacious, and require so little 
capital, that the application of so large a word would be 
out of place. There are few industries which may not 



56 

be made more profitable and easy by the improvement 
of appliances, and the substitution of steam or other 
power for manual labor ; but, if I have shewn that, by 
the labor of the hands alone, this industry can on a 
moderate scale be successfully and profitably conducted, 
the rest will follow in the ordinary course, and the im- 
proved appliances will be the result of experience, and 
may be paid for out of profits. 

After manufacture the oil is finally deposited in 
stone jars or in tanks to facilitate the deposit of im- 
purities which are still held in suspension. Air and light 
are both excluded, as they would tend to decomposition 
and rancidity. In a few months the clear oil is racked 
off into fresh jars for stock, or into other packages for 
the market ; while the inferior is sold for soap-making, 
lighting, lubricating, or other such purposes. 

The ultimate quality of the oil depends much on the 
nature of the places selected for its storage. Gallipoli, 
which is one of the greatest oil depots of the world, 
owes this advantage to the fact that it is built on rock 
of such quality as to furnish, at the labor only of excava- 
tion, admirable chambers for the reception of oil, which 
there clarifies sooner and keeps sweet longer than in any 
other place. The oil which in its turbid state arrives 
at these depots black and utterly unfit for market, in 
time becomes bright and yellow without any help from 
man. Great care is taken to keep the several qualities 
or stages distinct. (See Chapter X.) 



57 



CHAPTER X. 



PURIFICATION. 

The oil in its crude state contains impurities of various 
kinds, albuminous, mucilaginous, and other ; and to 
render it clear and fit for its various uses, and conse- 
quently marketable, various methods are used. Simple 
settlement appears to be the process, if it can be so 
called, most in vogue ; but hot air or steam, and 
infusion of nut galls are resorted to as purifying mediums. 

The Arabs produce excellent oil, knowing no other 
means of clarifying than by settlement in cisterns or 

McGulloch gives the following interesting account 
of the clarifying process, referred to in the last chapter, 
at Gallipoli : — 

" Gallipoli supplies England, Holland, the north of 
" Europe, and, in short, all those countries that require 
" the most perfectly purified oil. It is clarified to the 
66 highest degree, by merely keeping it in cisterns 
" hollowed out of the rock on which the town is built. 
" The voyages it has to perform being long, it is put into 
" casks so well constructed, that it frequently arrives at 
" Petersburg in the heat of summer without the least 
" waste or leakage, an advantage attributed to the 
<e seasoning of the staves, which, before they are put 
" together, are well soaked in sea water. 

" We borrow the following details with respect to 
" the preparation of oil at Gallipoli from a very interest- 
<€ ing paper by an English gentleman who had resided 
" in the town. 

" The rock on which the town is built is easily 
<e excavated ; and in caverns thus constructed oil clarifies 
" sooner* and keeps without rancidity much longer than 



58 



" in any other place. Hence numerous oil houses are 
" established at Gallipoli, and a very considerable portion 
" of the rock is cut into cisterns. A Gallipolitan oil 
" warehouse generally occupies the ground floor of a 
" dwelling-house, and has a low arched roof. Some are 
" more extensive, but on an average they are about 
" thirty feet square. In the stone floor you see four, six, 
" or more holes, which are circular, about two feet in 
" diameter, and like the mouths of wells. Each of these 
" holes gives access to a separate cistern beneath your 
" feet ; and when the oil is poured into them, care is 
" taken not to mix different qualities, or oils at different 
" stages, in the same reservoir. One cistern is set apart 
" for oglio mosto, or oil that is not clarified, another for 
" pure oil of the season, another for old oil, &c. I have 
" seen oil that had thus been preserved for seven years in 
" a perfect state. I, also, many times verified the fact 
" that the nwsto, or oil in its turbid state, which arrived 
ec almost as black and thick as pitch, soon became bright 
" and yellow in these excellent reservoirs, without any 
" help from man. 

" All the oil, whatever may be its quality, is brought 
" to the magazine in sheep or goat skins, which are 
" generally carried on mules — there being but few 
" 6 strade rotabili,' or roads fit for wheeled carriages, in 
" these parts. In a good year, and at the proper season, 
" I have counted, in the course of an afternoon's ride, 
" as many as 100 mules returning from Gallipoli, where 
" they had been to deposit their unctuous burdens, to 
" different towns and villages in the SerraD'Otranto, or 
" the more distant province of Bari. The quantity of 
" oil required may be conceived, when I state that at 
" one time (in the year 1810), I saw nine English, three 
" American, two Erench, and six Genoese vessels (not to 
" mention some small craft from the Adriatic), all 
" waiting in the Port of Gallipoli, for entire or partial 
" cargoes of it." 

Of the more elaborate processes, the following are 
taken from Ure, viz. : — 



59 



" Thenard's process consists in adding gradually 
" one or two per cent, of sulphuric acid to the oil, pre- 
44 viously heated to 100°, and well mixing them by 
44 constant agitation. To effect this, the process may be 
" carried on in a barrel fixed on an axis and kept 
4 4 revolving, or in a barrel which is itself immovable, 
44 but having fixed in its axis a movable fan. After the 
44 action of the acicl is complete, which is known by the 
" oil, after twenty -four hours' rest, appearing as a clear 
44 liquid, holding flocculent matter in suspension, there 
" is added to it a quantity of water, heated to 140°, 
44 equal to about two-thirds of the oil ; this mixture is 
66 well agitated, until it acquires a milky appearance. 
" It is then allowed to settle, when, after a few days, 
" the clarified oil will rise to the surface, while the 
" floccuient matter will have fallen to the bottom of the 
44 acid liquid. The oil may then be drawn off, but 
44 requires to be filtered to make it perfectly clear. The 
" filtration is always a difficult matter, and is conducted 
44 in various ways. It is sometimes placed in tubs, in 
44 the bottom of which are conical holes filled with 
44 cotton, but the holes become speedily choked with 
44 solid matters ; another and more speedy process is by 
44 the means of a displacing funnel, the apertures in the 
44 diaphragm being stopped with cotton. 

44 Several patents have been taken out for the 
44 purification of oils. Some passing hot air through 
44 the oil, while at the same time exposed to the action 
44 of light ; others passing steam through the oil. 

44 Cogan's process is a combination of the latter 
44 with Thenard's. He operates upon about 100 gallons 
44 of oil, and for this quantity he uses about ten pounds 
44 of sulphuric acicl, which he dilutes previously with an 
44 equal bulk of water. This acid mixture is added to 
44 the oil, placed in a suitable vessel, in three parts, the 
44 oil being well stirred for about an hour between each 
44 addition. It is then stirred for two or three hours, in 
44 order to insure a perfect mixture, and thus let every 
44 particle of the oil be acted on by the acicl. It then 



60 



" has assumed a very dark color. After being allowed 
" to stand for twelve hours, it is transferred to a copper 
" boiler, in the bottom of which are holes, through 
" which steam is admitted, and passing in a finely 
" divided state through the oil, raises it to the tempe- 
" rature of 212°. This steam process is carried on for 
" six or seven hours ; the oil is then transferred to a 
" cooler, having the shape of an inverted cone, termi- 
" nating in a short pipe, provided with a stop- cock 
" inserted in its side, a little distance from the bottom. 
" After being allowed to stand till the liquids are 
" separated, which generally takes about twelve hours, 
" the acid liquor is drawn off through the pipe at the 
" bottom, and the clear oil by the stop-cock in the side 
" of the cooler : all below this tap is generally turbid, 
f ' and is clarified by subsidence, or mixed with the next 
" portion of oil." 

Refining is also effected by agitating with a satu- 
rated solution of caustic soda. After a time a sapona- 
ceous deposit is precipitated, and the remainder becomes 
quite clear and pure. 

But while explaining a few of the more elaborate 
methods used for refining Olive oil, I invite those of my 
readers who contemplate the cultivation of the Olive in 
Queensland, to be content with keeping in view for 
their first manufacture, purification by simple settle- 
ment; because, however effectual any of these other 
processes may be, this method is found sufficient for a 
vast quantity of the best Olive oil produced in the 
world. 



61 



CHAPTER XI. 



YIELD AND VALUE. 

Decandolle states the quantity of oil produced by 
the Olive at fiftv per cent, of the gross weight : Sieuve 
tells us that 100 lbs. Olives yield 32 lbs. of oil, viz. :— 21 
from the pericarp, 4 from the kernel, and 7 from the 
shell, while others state it at 25 per cent. ; and while 
from an inferior variety the yield is set down as low as 
10 per cent. 

Calculating the yield per tree, it is extremely diffi- 
cult to give an average. In the case of the Olive as 
with many other vegetable products, no rule can be 
laid down. Its productiveness is governed by variety, 
climate, soil, culture, and age. 

The quantity of the crop is also liable to be affected 
by extremes of wet or drought, lateness of season, hail- 
storms, gales of wind, and seasons unusually rife with 
destructive insects. As in the case, therefore, of many 
other crops, it is more safe to base your calculations, 
whether of maximum or minimum, upon an average of 
years ; but after allowing for all possible drawbacks, in 
Olive countries, the tree is considered to be one of the 
most profitable crops known to agriculture. 

In most of the statements given I find some point 
of weakness which destroys their value as a guide. 
Where the average per acre is given, the age of the 
plantation is omitted ; while from the produce of single 
trees in exceptional circumstances little can be learned. 
The lowest average that I find is 1 gallon per tree ; 
while on other estates the average is given at from 1J 
to 2 gallons per tree. The yield of individual trees is 
given at from 12 to 20 gallons ; while one tree of 
renown is stated to have yielded as much as 55 gallons, 
and another three hundredweight of oil, 



62 



Taking the lowest average, viz., one gallon to the 
tree, and sixty trees to the acre, the produce at *8s. a 
gallon, the Brisbane market value of the imported article 
would be £24i per acre in the early years of bearing ; 
while the value of the Olive when cultivated increases 
as a matter of certainty with each additional year of age 
until maturity. But, in the face of this indisputable 
fact, and the knowledge that a plantation of Olives is a 
permanent, safe, and improving investment of a most 
enduring character, we can well afford to be patient for 
our first returns, especially as the land is not occupied 
by the trees to the absolute exclusion of other crops. 
Taking the produce in the early years of bearing at one- 
fourth of that named, with the knowledge of what to 
expect as year by year the trees grow older, and with 
the use of nearly all the land on which they stand for 
other crops, we can still well afford to wait. 

The Olive already in Adelaide, like the cotton with 
us, affords employment to the children in the picking. 
For this they are paid 4d. a bucket, or by some 2s. a 
cwt., and can earn at this light labor, so suited to their 
strength, as much as 2s. a day without difficulty. 

I do not desire to import into the calculations of 
profit the residuum of oil-cake as an important item ; 
out this, of course, also has it value. In Australia we 
have not been in the habit of stall-feeding cattle ; but it 
is by no means certain that, as population becomes more 
dense, and our grazing grounds more remote from the 
cities, it may not yet enter into our agricultural system. 
But apart from a somewhat wide question like this, 
there is at least our old friend the pig quite prepared to 
convert the Olive oil- cake into bacon, hams, and lard. 

* The market price in Adelaide, of the local product, is 12s. per gallon. 



63 



CHAPTER XII. 



TECHNOLOGICAL TEACHING. 

There is one subject which, though not strictly 
belonging to my text, I must, before concluding, take 
the opportunity of adverting to. I refer to the value of 
technological teaching, and the importance of the 
establishment of technological schools — especially in 
connection with agriculture. Much of the future 
wealth of Queensland depends upon the proper develop- 
ment of the resources of the soil's surface on her long 
coast. Hitherto the proportion of good to bad farming 
has been as the grain of wheat to the bushel of chaff ; 
while much of the success which has been attained has 
resulted from the combined favorable influences of good 
soil and fine climate. This will be better understood by 
those who have watched the career of a shipload of 
immigrants. Of those who take to farming, a compara- 
tively small number have had any previous practical 
experience. The majority have been mechanics, col- 
lectors, weavers, drovers, merchants' clerks, tradesmen, 
&c, &c, but know little more of farming than to 
distinguish between a plough and a harrow when they 
see them. As they happen to have more or less of 
money, they commence on their own account, or as 
farm laborers. Up to this point there is of course 
nothing to object to ; as there is no occupation to which 
they could take, more likely to benefit the colony, or, in 
the long run, to lead more rapidly to their own inde- 
pendence. But, instead of benefiting by the experience 
of others, they — mistaking the influences of climate and 
virgin soil for their own skill — imagine, before they 
have been here six months, that they are heaven-born 
agriculturists, and begin to patronise the older settler 
by advancing in the columns of the Press, for his 



64 



benefit, doctrines of the most startling and perplexing 
kind. One of the most remarkable instances of this 
was to be seen in some articles " communicated " to 
the columns of an influential journal by one of these 
new lights, in which he solemnly endeavored to prove 
that trenching and draining were both mistakes. Of 
course, eventually these persons have to buy their 
experience, and in due course, through more or less of 
loss and waste of time, become good farmers, and win 
their way to independence. 

But it is not for the immigrant that I am anxious 
to provide instruction ; but for the hundreds of native- 
born lads who are destined for the farm. The most 
thorough way of teaching agriculture would be by 
the establishment of model farms, which, if well and 
economically conducted, would soon repay by their 
results the cost to the State of their establishment. 
To teach the people practically anything which will 
add to their comfort, and increase their prosperity, 
is one of the most profitable investments in which to 
apply the revenues of a State. The direct return is 
good, while the indirect is incalculable. 

I fear, however, that such a project, in its more ex- 
tended form, would create alarm among the economists, 
who, not seeing the great advantages to arise therefrom, 
would see very clearly another Government department, 
with its expensive machinery, looming near, and would 
not listen to the proposal. I would therefore, as a ten- 
tative measure, upon the success of which the larger 
project might be left to depend, suggest that our public 
schools in the agricultural districts should include the 
first principles of farming and their practical application 
as a part of the course of instruction. One of the great 
difficulties in the way of education in these districts is 
to be found in the fact that so soon as a boy is old 
enough to wield a hoe or drive a horse he is taken from 
school. Nor is this to be wondered at, with the twofold 
inducement to the father to remove him offered by the 
intrinsic value of his services, and the fact that the edu- 



65 



cation he is getting begins and ends with books, and gives 
no promise of helping to bring grist to the paternal mill 
by the superior knowledge which he is attaining. If, on 
the other hand, the boy comes home from time to time 
with some fresh piece of knowledge which enables him 
to teach his father something which he did not know 
before as to the habits and uses of plants, their assimila- 
tion of their food from the soil, the principles and 
practice of drainage, the rationale and the various 
methods of pruning, the diseases of cattle and their 
treatment, and the hundred other items of knowledge of 
direct practical utility to him in his calling — he would 
see it to be to his direct advantage to leave the lad at 
school until both mind and body were better matured 
for going to work. 

It does not require demonstrating that the additional 
knowledge which boys so taught would bring to bear 
upon agriculture would repay to the state the cost of 
teaching; but, though much might be said upon this 
point, the occasion is not altogether suitable- for its 
treatment more fully. 

As a valuable adjunct to such a system, and one 
involving no great outlay, our public museum should 
contain models of all the best known labor-saving imple- 
ments — of the machinery and appliances used in other 
countries in the preparation for the market of various 
vegetable products forming staple commodities. I would 
instance, among those which could be grown in our 
midst — the Castor Bean, the Olive, Indigo, Coffee, Jute, 
Hemp, and Hhea plants. The great stumbling-block in 
the way of commencing these industries is not to demon- 
strate that the plant will grow to perfection ; but, when 
you have produced your fruit, stem, leaf, or root, as the 
case may be, to know how to set to work to produce the 
staple commodity in a marketable form economically 
and with certainty, without wasting time, patience, 
and money in blundering, through a host of trials, into 
the right sort of appliances, 

E 



66 



A few thousand pounds annually of additional ex- 
penditure in the two directions I have indicated would 
probably, in the course of a few years, return millions 
to the colony ; while the complete development of the 
fact, now in the infancy of its demonstration, would be 
proportionately hastened — that Queensland is destined 
to take rank among the greatest and the wealthiest of 
England's colonies. 



67 



APPENDICES. 



APPENDIX I. (See p. 25.) 
Extract from Letter from Mr. Sheriff ' JBoothhy ', of South Australia. 

Sheriff's Office, Adelaide, 

26th December, 1871. 

Dear Sir, 

I am glad to learn that the Acclimatization Society is taking an 
interest in Olive planting, and that you are about sending to Europe for the 
best varieties. I venture to suggest, as the best mode of raising trees, the 
planting of seedling stocks and grafting the year after, about one inch under 
the ground (cleft grafting) with approved scions. In this way you get a per- 
fectly formed tree, and one more likely to ensure success. I have paid for 
experience. The bark of an Olive is too thin to succeed well with budding or 
grafting above ground. The varieties we have planted came many years ago 
from the neighbourhood of Marseilles, and were imported by the South 
Australian Company. 

I have not any seedling plants, but Captain Simpson, of Glen Osmond, 
has the oldest plantation here, and has generally a good number springing 
up, without any care, underneath the old trees. I used these — planted them 
out, when about three inches high, in the place where they were to stand, in 
trenched ground. Then, next year, grafted them with scions as above, from 
the Marseilles varieties, selecting those that appeared to thrive best in this 
climate. The " Verdale" I think the best on the whole, and is thought also 
to be the best by Mr. Davenport, a gentleman who takes much interest also 
in the Olive, and has a plantation. Sir J ohn Morphet has the Spanish ; 
these succeed very well, and produce a larger berry than the French kinds. 
I have some of these also, but cannot move them. 

We commenced planting about ten years ago, and have now a large 
number of trees growing, and coming, most of them, into bearing. 

I have sent to Paris for several French works on the Olive and oil 
making. Mr. Davenport, when he was last in Europe, took Busby's book 
with him, and went over the same ground and visited the Olive yards 
and manufactories in the south of France, bringing back much useful 
information. 

I shall be glad to aid, in any way that I can, and shall feel obliged by an 
occasional exchange of information on this subject. 

Believe me to be, dear Sir, 

Yours very truly, 

W. E. BOOTHBY, 

Lewis A. Bernays, Esq., F.L.S., 

Vice-President, &c, &c, &c. 



68 



APPENDIX II. 

Brisbane, 17th May, 1872. 

Dear Sie, 

In reply to your letter of 27tli April, I am very nappy to describe 
the method of cultivating the Olive tree in Italy, as I believe it would also 
suit this climate. 

There are many varieties of the Olive, but all require the same cultiva- 
tion. The soil should be dry and stony and on a slope, and, if possible, 
should contain lime. The exposure should be favorable for receiving the sun 
in winter, especially in severe climates ; but where there are no frosty winds, 
the Olive can be planted in any aspect. 

There should be no other cultivation in a plantation of Olives ; except 
occasionally, in order to remove the grass and loosen the soil, a green crop 
such as lupins or beans is sown, for the purpose of being ploughed in as 
manure. 

The Olive tree should be planted in holes five feet every way, and thirty 
feet from tree to tree, which are planted quincunx fashion, thus : — 

so as to admit of the most perfect admission of sun and 

air. 

• • • • At least twice a-year, the land should be worked with 

• , . . . the hoe for three feet around the tree, which process 

should every second year be preceded by a manuring. 
* ' * By thus applying the manure, it is covered from the sun, 

• . • • and the moisture can penetrate to the roots of the tree. 

Every third year, the Olive tree must be pruned by 
an expert person, so that the plant may not be injured — only dry barren 
branches should be cut away. The art of pruning the Olive tree is difficult ; 
and therefore more easily taught by practice than theoretically. 

Cuttings from any part of the Olive tree will grow and become trees. 
However, we first form a nursery of plants, either from fruit sown in well- 
cultivated soil, or by taking off the iiovoli from the superficial roots of other 
trees. These latter when replanted more rapidly become trees ; but to 
extract the uovoli when we work the ground around the tree, requires the 
practised hand of an intelligent person, in order that the tree, which should 
be at least ten years old, may not be injured. 

The trees should be trained to one stem to the height of at least seven 
to ten feet, before allowing it to make branches ; because the fruit must 
not be exposed to the reverberated heat of the earth by the rays of the sun, 
or to the miasmata of the soil. In the first case, the fruit would ripen too 
rapidly ; and, in the second, would get spoiled before maturity. By this 
system, the tree becomes stroug, and able to resist the wind, while it also 
fruits with more vigor. On the other hand, by allowing suckers and low 
branches to grow unrestrained, the plant becomes enervated, and the sap 
produces only wood and leaves. 

Generally speaking, the Olive tree produces abundantly only in alternate 
years ; and the fruit must be gathered (by hand) by ascending the tree, or 
by beating the tree with rods without breaking any young branches which 
would produce fruit the next year. A practised person should be present at 
the harvesting of the fruit, in order to see that the trees are not damaged. 
The fruit must be carried to a store, and kept for a few days before extracting 
the oil, that it may be purified from aqueous moisture, and its maturity be 
completed by natural fermentation ; but strong and prolonged chemical fer- 
mentation must be avoided, because it imparts to the oil a bad flavor. The 
Olives are afterwards ground, and pressed for the extraction of the oil, which 



69 



can be taken off without water, witli fresh water, and with hot water, according 
to the quality of oil desired ; but of this matter I shall speak another time, 
if necessary. 

To manure the Olive in those soils which are deficient in lime, sulphur, 
and soda, a strong animal manure must be used ; and the best of all manures 
are those of sheep, pigeons, or poultry, or soot and ashes, mixed with horse- 
dung ; or refuse fat, or scraps of leather in urine, mixed with stockyard 
manure. To mature this manure, a tank should be sunk, cemented so as to 
hold urine and water, into which should be put all the substances above- 
mentioned, and let all ferment together. Every two or three months, the 
fermentation could be increased by turning over the contents. When it is a 
year old, apply it to the trees, turuing it quickly underground with the hoe, 
so that the moisture can penetrate to the roots of the tree, and evaporation 
be prevented. 

The short space of a letter does not admit of full explanations ; but I 
hope I have made myself sufficiently understood, always begging you to 
remember that my acquaintance with your language is imperfect. My ser- 
vices are always at the disposal of your Society ; and I can inform you, that 
next month I am expecting from Italy several kinds of Olive trees, and fruits 
and vines of different species, which I intend testing on land of my own. 
* * 4 * # * * * 

Yours respectfully, 

EUGENIO RICCI. 

Lewis A. Bernays, Esquire. 



APPENDIX III. (See page 25.) 

Extract from letter from the Hon. Samuel Davenport, dated Adelaide, 23rd 

May, 1872. 

The seedlings now sent will be readily budded or grafted underground. 
After having grown two years with you, or even three, and from a strong 
stock, which, by that time, should have formed, you would in two years more 
' have a well-shaped tree. The truncheons sent you in September next, should 
have sprouted within nine or ten months after being bedded, and over the 
next year the growth is rapid, till (as with me) a two or three year old 
truncheon shoot becomes a tree four to six feet high, with an inch or two 
inch diameter stem, according to kind, and can readily give grafts and buds 
for a large amount of seedlings. 

I here graft seedlings of five or six years old with easy success, only this 
is not so good as grafting on two or three year old plants, if for no other 
cause than that the volume of sap in the larger older plant is too excessive 
for a graft, and consequently you are subsequently troubled with having to 
rub off numerous bark shoots and root suckers pushed out by the old tree. 

The grafting I find best is underground, to be heaped up after binding 
air and water tight with unbleached calico strip, drawn through mixed mutton 
fat and beeswax and then cooled, so that two eyes of the graft only remain 
above the ground. 

With us the dry heat of direct sun's rays will peel off the bark of the 
old plant below the graft if exposed above ground, and only the graft, if any, 
on the shady side will survive, The style of grafting is crown. The graft is 
cut slantingly from beneath a bud, and so as not to leave any ragged or torn 



70 



edge, and then at once inserted in a slit of the bark of the old wood, one lip 
of the slit coming to the side of graft, the other on its bark, so that it will all 
bind over closely without vacuum in the connecting points of the sap vessels 
of the two woods. 

For grafts I have used two-year-old wood, and worked towards the end 
of July, which seems to suit in our climate. 



APPENDIX IV. (See page 38.) 

Extract from Dr. Thomsons " The Land and The Book." 

Labor of the Olive. 

This tree requires but little labor or care of any kind, and, if long 
neglected, will revive again when the ground is dug or ploughed, and begin 
afresh to yield as before. Vineyards forsaken die out almost immediately ; 
and mulberry orchards neglected run rapidly to ruin ; but not so the Olive. 
I saw the desolate hills of Jebel-ei-Alah, above Antioch, covered with these 
groves, although no one had paid attention to them for half a century. If 
the Olive bore every year, its value would be incalculable ; but, like 
most other trees, it yields only every other year. Even with this deduction, 
it is the most valuable species of property in the country. Large trees, in a 
good season, will yield from ten to fifteen gallons of oil, and an acre of them 
gives a crop worth at least one hundred dollars. .No wonder it is so highly 
prized. 

Its Usefulness. 

The value of this tree is enhanced by the fact that its fruit is indispen- 
sable for the comfort, and even existence of the mass of the community. 
The Biblical references to this matter are not at all exaggerated. The berry, 
pickled, forms the general relish to the farmers' dry bread. He goes forth 
to his work in the field at early dawn, or sets out on a journey, with no other 
provision than Olives wrapped up in a quantity of his paper-like loaves ; and 
with this he is contented. Then almost every kind of dish is cooked in oil, 
and without it the good wife is utterly confounded ; and when the oil fails, 
the lamp in the dwelling of the poor expires. Moreover, the entire supply of 
soap in this country is from the produce of the Olive. Habakkuk, therefore, 
gives a very striking attestation of his faith in God when he says, <£ Although 
" the labor of the Olive should fail, yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in 
" the God of my salvation." 

Gathering of the Olive. 
Isaiah refers to the gathering of the Olive thus : " Yet gleaning grape 9 
" shall be in it, as the shaking of an Olive tree ; two or three berries in the 
" top of the uppermost boughs, four or five in the outermost fruitful branches 
" thereof." Have you noticed the circumstances alluded to by the prophet ? 
Very often ; and it is the language of familiar acquaintance with the subject. 
As you may never have an opportunity to watch the process, I will describe 
it as it occurs in such places as Hasbeiya, where I have studied it to best 
advantage. Early in autumn the berries begin to drop of themselves, or are 
shaken off by the wind. They are allowed to remain under the trees for 
some time, guarded by the watchman of the town — a very familiar Biblical 
character. Then a proclamation is made by the Governor that all who have 
trees go out and pick what is fallen. Previous to this, not even the owners 



71 



are allowed to gather Olives in the groves. This proclamation is repeated 
once or twice, according to the season. In November comes the general and 
final summons, which sends forth all Hasbeiya. JNo Olives are now safe 
unless the owner looks after them, for the watchmen are removed, and the 
orchards are alive with men, women, and children . It is a merry time, and 
the laugh and song echo far and wide. 

Shaking of the Olive. 

Everywhere the people are in the trees, " shaking " them with all their 
might, to bring down the fruit. This is what the prophet had in mind. The 
effort is to make a clear sweep of all the crop ; but, in spite of shaking and 
beating there is always a gleaning left—" two or three berries in the top of 
" the uppermost boughs, four or five in the outermost fruitful branches." 
These are afterwards gleaned up by the very poor, who have no trees of their 
own ; and by industry they gather enough to keep a lamp in their habitation 
during the dismal nights of winter, and to cook their mess of pottage and 
bitter herbs. I have often seen these miserable outcasts gleaning among the 
groves, and shivering in winter's biting cold. In fact, the " shaking of the 
Olive " is the severest operation in Syrian husbandry, particularly in such 
mountainous regions as Hasbeiya. When the proclamation goes forth to 
" shake," there can be no postponement. The rainy season has already set 
in, the trees are dripping with the last shower, or bowing under a load of 
moist snow ; but shake, shake you must, drenching yourself and those below 
in an artificial storm of rain, snow, and Olives. JNo matter how piercing the 
wind, how biting the frost, this work must go on from early dawn to dark 
night ; and then the weary laborer must carry on his aching back a heavy 
load of dripping berries, two or three miles up the mountain, to his home. 
To comprehend the necessity of all this, you must remember that the Olive 
groves are in common — not owned in common, but planted on the same general 
tract of land, and are without fences, walls, or hedges of any kind, mingled 
together like trees in a natural forest. This tree belongs to " Zeid," that to 
" Abeid," as they say, and so on through the whole plantation. Such at least, 
is the case with the groves we are describing. This vast orchard of Shwoifat, 
through which we have been riding for the last hour, has a thousand owners, 
and in " shaking time " every one must look sharply after his own, or he 
loses all. There is an utter confounding of the weum and tuum in the 
general conscience of Olive gatherers, 

Olive Plants bound the Table. 

To what particular circumstance does David refer in the 128th Psalm, 
where he says, " Thy children shall be like Olive plants round about thy table " ? 
Follow me into the grove and I will shew you what may have suggested the 
comparison. Here we have hit upon a beautiful illustration. This aged and 
decayed tree is surrounded, as you see, by several young and thrifty shoots, 
which spring from the root of the venerable parent. They seem to uphold, 
protect, and embrace it. We may even fancy that they now bear that load 
of fruit which would otherwise be demanded of the feeble parent. Thus do 
good and affectionate children gather round the table of the righteous. Each 
contributes something to the common wealth and welfare of the whole — a 
beautiful sight, with which may God refresh the eyes of every friend of mine. 



12 



APPENDIX V. (See page 34.) 

1. — Acre, of shape 220 feet long by 198 feet wide. 
Deducting dray road (12 feet wide), we have — 

Area to be planted = 174 feet wide by 196 feet long, 
which will admit of 10 rows, with 11 trees in each row, 16 feet apart, 
8 9 „ „ 20 

}> >> o ,, 6 „ „ 30 „ 

„ 4 „ 4 „ „ 40 „ 

the fractional parts of the spaces being adjacent in each case to the dray road. 

2. — Acre, of shape 264 feet long by 165 feet wide. 
Deducting dray road (12 feet wide), we have — 

Area to be planted = 141 feet wide by 240 feet long, 
which will admit of 8 rows, with 14 trees in each row, 16 feet apart, 
6 „ 11 „ „ 20 

4 „ 7 „ „ 30 

3 5 „ „ 40 

the fractional parts of the spaces being adjacent in each case to the dray road. 

3. — Acre, of shape 330 feet long by 132 feet wide. 
Deducting dray road (12 feet wide), we have — 

Area to be planted == 108 feet wide by 306 feet long, 
which will admit of 6 rows, with 18 trees in each row, 16 feet apart, 

4 „ 14 „ „ 20 
3 9 „ „ 30 
2 „ 7 „ „ 40 

the fractional parts of the spaces being in each case adjacent to the dray road 



Collecting the above results, we have the following table : — 



Distance apart. 


Acre, 220 x 198. 


Acre, 264 x 165. 


Acre, 330 x 132. 


16 feet 


110 trees required 


112 trees required 


108 trees required 


20 ,; 


72 „ 


66 „ „ 


56 „ 


30 „ 


30 „ 


28 „ 


27 „ 


40 „ 




15 „ 


14 „ 



We may form a second table by excluding all consideration of the frac- 
tional spaces adjacent to the dray road, and simply calculating how many 
times the area required for each tree is contained in the available areas of 
acres of each of the preceding forms. A table so calculated is as follows : — 



Acre of form. 


Available 
area in 
square feet. 


Trees 16 feet 
apart. 


Trees 20 feet 
apart. 


Trees 30 feet 
apart. 


Trees 40 feet 
apart. 


feet feet 
220x 198 ... 
264x 165 ... 
330 x 132 ... 


34,104 
33,840 
33,048 


Trees required. 
133 
132 
129 


Trees required. 
85 
85 
83 


Trees required. 
38 
37 
37 


Trees required. 
21 
21 
21 



73 



INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 



(The author is much indebted to Mr. Thomas McLeod, one of the 
masters of the Brisbane Grammar School, for the excellent manner in which 
the drawings were prepared for the stone.) 

Plate A. — The Olive. — A branch shewing the fruit and flowers. 

Plate B. — "Knaurs" or Embryo Buds. To illustrate the "Uovoli" of the 
Olive tree. (See page 29.) 

Plate C. — Labor-saving implements for keeping the surface of the soil open 
and clean. — Hay ns worth's Garden Cultivator, an American 
patent. 

Plate D. — Hoe for keeping down the weeds between the rows of trees. 

Plate E.-^-Olive Mill and Building at Corfu, from sketch made on the spot 
in 1863. (Reproduced from a Paper on the cultivation of 
the Olive, read by the Hon. Samuel Davenport before the 
Chamber of Manufactures, Adelaide, South Australia, on 
19th July, 1870.) 

Plate F. — Oil Press used in the above Mill. (See Illustration E.) 
Plate G. — Stone Oil- Mill, at Almunecar, Spain. 
Plate H. — Oil Press, at Almunecar, Spain. 

Plate I. — Tin Skimmer, used for skimming off the oil from the receiver, 
and pouring into the tinajas at Malaga. 

Plate J. — " Tinajas," or earthenware jars, used for storing oil at Malaga. 

Plate K. — " Florentine Receiver," used by the Hon. Samuel Davenport, of 
Adelaide, South Australia. The Receiver is built of slabs of 
slate cemented, in the absence of marble. Each chamber 
holds 40 gallons. The oil comes from tap c like new honey. 
The object of the second chamber is that tap c can be left to 
run all night ; a and b are draining-off taps. The waste pipe 
is below the level of the receiver, as the receiver never over- 
flows ; out of this the fruit water (the waste of the press) 
flows, leaving the oil on the top of the fluid in the receiver 
Mr. Davenport is of opinion that much labor is saved by 
adopting this structure. 

Plate L. — One form of Mill used in Spain. 

Plate M.-- Ancient Oil Mill and Presses. (From Dr. Thomson's " The 
Land and the Book.") 

Plate N. — Sieuve's Method of extracting Olive Oil. From a work pub- 
lished in Padova, in 1819. The primary object of this method 
is to separate the pulp from the kernel of the Olives ; these 
are then pressed by another separate process. Plate 1ST 
represents the above machine ; figure 1, as seen front and 
sideways ; figure 2, in its perpendicular section. 



74 



AB and CD represent the brackets for the whole frame to rest 
upon. 

EF, GH, IK, LM, the four uprights of the structure fastened 
together, with as many tie beams or cross pieces. 

j^O, the windlass intended to raise the crusher, when necessary. 

IN", a wooden wheel to which is attached a rope. 

P, a pully through which the rope passes that holds the crusher 
in suspension. 

Q, the end of the rope to which are fastened the four ends of the 
crusher. 

PS, the crusher as placed in its frame ; — this frame consists of a 
large piece of board with grooves cut on the lower side. 

S, a wooden peg fixed in the crusher in order to give motion to 
the valve of the mill-hopper. 

R, the catch-peg for withdrawing or setting the crusher in its 
case. 

T, the mill-hopper into which the Olives are placed, and from 
whence they fall in small numbers at a time when the crusher 
is set in motion. 

WV, the case at the bottom of which is a board grooved like that 
of the crusher. 

X, a funnel terminating in a bag, into which the pulp of the 
fruit falls. 

Z, a trough into which the oil falls, which the crushing had 
caused to ooze out from the cells in which it was contained 
(shut up). 

When the bag is full of pulp it is -taken away and another placed 
* instead. 

a, an axis (shelf board) of iron upon which the case is balanced. 
be, receiver through which the kernels are made to fall into 

the trough. 
df, the trough for receiving the kernels. 

Plate O. — The Oil Mill, as represented in Plate O, figure 1, consists of a 
good solid circular wall, generally from 24 to 30 inches in 
height and from 6 to 8 feet in diameter. This structure is 
then covered with hard well-polished stones (slabs) or thick 
planks of oak when stones are not procurable, and arranged 
in such manner that the edges are more raised than the centre, 
allowing a fall of about six inches — as, for example, from 
E to F ; wherefore, the circle passing in C is lower and more 
depressed. 

A millstone of the thickness of a foot (more or less), upon a dia- 
meter of five feet (more or less), is fastened to a beam, JK, 
which turns on a pivot, 1, in the centre of circle, in a hole 
bored into the beam, LL, by means of pole, CD, firmly 
secured in the mortise, D, of that pole, the axis upon which 
it has a rotatory motion. 

It is only necessary to glance at the figure to understand the 
mechanism of this mill. A horse tied to the axle, C, turns 
the beam, and with it the millstone, which, turning on itself, 
naturally crushes by its weight everything that is put in its 
way. A man appointed to it, with a spade shoves as much 



75 



as possible all the stuff under the millstone, so that it should 
only be emptied slowly through the action of the millstone, 
and principally on the lower side, or in E. 
It is of the utmost importance, in building a mill of the kind, 
to choose for the beds large hard stones well cemented 
together, and for the millstone one heavy and hard. Granite 
is the best kind of stone for the purpose, but it is often 
beyond the reach of many on account of the great expense 
of having it made or on account of its heavy freight. Next 
in quality are red marbles ; ordinary building stones, bricks 
and woods, are of no use, for they wear out too soon, and 
absorb, also, a considerable quantity of oil, which is not only 
lost, but, by its getting rancid, communicates to the oil made 
afterwards the leaven of rancidity that prevents it from 
keeping. 

The whole surface of this structure, as well as the millstone and 
the basis of the beams, ought to be washed with warm water 
every time they are put in motion ; and if they have not 
been worked for some time, it is better, before using them, 
to rub them over, so as to take away any rancid oil that 
might have secreted itself within the crevices. 

As we have said already, the proportions of the mill can vary 
accordingly ; but it is necessary, in all cases, that the shaft, 
CD, should be at the same height as the horse's chest, for if 
the beam should be too low the horse would be soon tired, 
and if too high the millstone would be lifted up too often, 
and answer imperfectly its office. On the whole, it is better 
to make the horse turn rather at a slow than at a quick pace : 
but too slow a walk has also its inconveniences, if we only 
take into consideration the loss of time. A few days' ex- 
perience will teach more than a whole volume of good 
advice. 

The mill represented in figure 2 is constructed on quite different 
principles. The part A is also a wall, but the higher portion 
of it, instead of being on the incline, is of the shape of a 
circular trough. In this trough, EF, which is of the depth 
of about six or eight inches, is the millstone, BB, to the axis 
of which are attached two little chains at the points LL, and 
behind which is tied a rake or " servant," H. This rake or 
servant, which is curved or bent like a semi-circle one way, 
and like the shape of the trough on the other, brings back 
towards the middle of the trough the husks that, through 
the movement of the millstone, might stick to the sides. It 
spares hand labor. 

When animals are made to turn the mill, it is well to bandage 
their eyes to prevent giddiness. 

Horses and mules are made to turn the mills, but oxen are pre- 
ferred by some people on account of their steady pace. 

It is not reasonable to work a horse for more than two hours at 
once ; six hours' work is enough for any horse, although it is 
nothing unusual to see them overworked. 

It is, besides, so very easy to increase the velocity of the mill 
without tiring the horse. There might be a little more out- 
lay at the beginning, but it will amply with time, as it will 
spare horseflesh. To obtain the result required, it is neces- 



76 



sary to erect a large beam ; at the point K a round block 
with spindles is attached, and, at a distance of about six 
or eight feet, on a granite pedestal, another beam parallel 
to the first one. Opposite, and at a corresponding height, 
secured to this beam, is a large cog-wheel. The horse 
turns this last beam, and will, as a natural consequence, 
make the millstone turn quicker, for the larger the wheel 
and the smaller the other block opposite, the more evolutions 
will be performed by the smaller beam ; so that if the block 
had only ten spindles, and the wheel a hundred cogs, the 
mill would perform ten evolutions while the horse goes round 
once. If the locality did not allow a distance of six or eight 
feet to be put between the wall and the beam turned by the 
horse, it could be remedied by putting hi:n either above (in 
a higher story), or below in another compartment. (See 
figure 3, which design (vertical) shews this kind of mill-) 

Plate P. — If water power be at hand it would be wise to make use of it, 
as it spares horse flesh, and also because the work can go on 
without interruption. One can vary the construction of the 
wheel, as all depends on the force of the water power, and the 
height of its fall. In plate P, figure I, is represented one of 
these mills, supposed to be put into motion by a weak fall of 
water, but from a good height. Watercourse A puts in 
motion wheel B, which, by means of the axis CC, and the 
perpendicular and horizontal cogs DD and EE, turns beam 
FF, and consequently the millstone GGr attached to the 
beam. The principles of construction in this mill differ in 
no way from the two former ones. 

The cider mills in Britany and Normandy differ from the former 
ones, for pears and apples do not require the same amount 
of pressure as oil-giving seeds, as the nuts of the Olive. 
Figure 2, in plate P, gives an idea of it. 

A A, circular trough. B, rake or servant that brings back the 
fruit under the millstone. CC, little partitions for the 
different varieties of apples or pears. D, millstone. E, axis 
of the millstone. F, traces for the horse. L, guide, or a 
long light pole tied to the inner side of the horse's mouth, in 
order to keep him at the right distance from the mill. 

The Dutch mills are considered to be the most perfect of all. 

Plate Q. — Represents the apparatus for refining the oil, and the instruments 
used for the purpose. There is no scale in the figure, as the 
dimensions of this kind of mill can vary according to means. 

A. — A wooden or leaden tube to lead the water into the press. 

B. — A bung stopper, through which one lets the water into the 

press. 

C. — A tank made of stone or of wood, of the best material possible, 

and built within and above of solid mason work. At the bottom 
of this tank is a millstone with a hole in the middle of it. 

D. — A hardwood beam, generally of oak ; it is held in a vertical 

position by a cross beam F, it afterwards goes through the 
wall CC, and through the opening made as far as II. In this 
opening is a wheel attached to the beam. K is the pivot it 
turns upon. 



77- 



— Is a piece of hardwood of box or green oak, about nearly the 
diameter of tlie base of the millstone, and joined with the 
lower beam with the aid of strong spikes or screws. 

G. — The millstone. It is generally about five or six inches in 

thickness, and four or five feet in height. The weightier 
this perpendicular mill is, the better the husks are crushed ; 
and it is from the greater division of the particles that depends 
more or less the profit to be made by this kind of mill. It 
has two motions, one inside on the beam, and the other on 
beam D, and consequently on it. It ought to be of granite ; 
but in certain localities people are obliged to use common 
marble. 

H. — Base of the beam shod with iron, revolving in an iron, or, 

what is still better, a bronze pedestal. 

II. — An opening made in the wall, large enough for the horizontal 
wheel XK, which is put in motion, by the fall of the water 
coming from the canal M. 

KK. — Horizontal wheel provided with small palettes or cogs, 
against which the. water strikes with force, and to which it 
communicates the motion. These small palettes ought to be 
cut in the shape of a spoon, in order to offer the water a 
greater resistance. 

LL. — The above-mentioned little troughs or palettes. 

MM. — Canal that carries the water towards the wheel ELK. 
The quickness of rotation of wheel K, as well as naturally of 
beam D, and the millstone C, depend on the volume of water 
coming from canal MM. It is not advisable to allow the 
motion to be too rapid, for we must give the millstone time 
to crush the husks and extract from them the oil ; for, if it 
passed too rapidly over this paste, a part of the oil already 
squeezed out would be re-absorbed, and the aim would be 
incomplete. 

IsN.— Canal of escape, beginning at the surface of the water on 
the press C. The remainder of the parenchyma of the skin of 
the fruit floating on the top of the water, as well as the other 
little particles of oil that are dragged along by the motion of 
the millstone, come into this canal, which is constructed in 
zigzag, in order to prevent the water from rushing too 
quickly into the reservoir P ; also, in order that this water 
should not in its fall stir up the dregs that are at the bottom 
of the reservoir opposite the mouth of the canal, it is well to 
put a piece of wood, 00 ; it helps to break the force of the 
water. 

00. — Block of wood, generally taken from the stem of a tree. 
It is generally fastened at the bottom of the wall, so as to be 
immovable. 

P. — First reservoir or tank, made either of stone or brickwork, 
It has to be the largest of all, and is generally ten feet in 
length by eight feet in breadth. It is also as well to have 
also a roof over, to prevent any filth from falling into it. 
The roof is not in the plan, but it is easy to fancy one. 

Q. — If the water was allowed to flow above the reservoir, it would 
carry along with it oleaginous particles and the remainder of 
the husks that float on the top, To avoid this real loss, there 



78 

is made a valve Q, that can be opened or shut at one's will, 
and leads from the middle part of the reservoir by the pipe 

R. — Pipe leading from tub P to tub S, where the water in flowing 
encounters a block of wood similar to the one described in 
the other reservoir. 

S. — Another basin similar to the first, but in this one the water 
flows directly into the third basin T, and this one into the 
fourth, X. The communication of these three last basins is 
at the centre, as is seen in Y. One could, if thought proper, 
even add another reservoir. 

Z. — The same valve lets escape the water in V and in Z, by lift- 
ing it more or less. It is only lifted when one wants to 
clean it out. 

The water that flows from the upper part of the basin CC is only 
charged with the remnants of the fruits, and a little oil, and 
also some little particles detached from the kernel of the 
fruit, known under the name of black crust ; the other parts 
of the kernel do not come to the top, but remain at the 
bottom of the basin. But as they (the remainder) might, 
and do really retain little bits of fruit, it is necessary not to 
lose these particles ; to this purpose a hole is made in the 
wall at the bottom of the tower, that communicates by hole 2 
with wall 3, and comes out into canal No. 4, that carries the 
water and the rest of the fruit, known under the name of 
white crust, into basin 5, which basin is also provided like 
the other ones with a valve, 6. Basins 7 and 8 are filled also 
in the same way, and also as many other ones as one wished 
to build. 

The last basins give, as a rule, very little oil, it is true ; but as it 
is no outlay to gather even this small quantity, this little is 
a net profit. 

Such is the shape of the mill ; let us see how it has to be worked. 
The husks of the Olives, after having been crushed in the 
ordinary mill, are spread on the floor of the refining mill, to 
be taken from there into the vats. When there is a sufficient 
quantity in the vat, the mill is set in motion for a quarter of 
an hour, so that the crust (husk) is crushed another time. 
After this stopper B is opened to let in some water, and the 
wheel is made to turn again. The force of the water rushing 
rapidly, and that of the mill, serve to dissolve more com- 
pletely the husks ; more water is added to turn the wheel, 
and at last all the water is let loose. The black crust rises 
to the surface, and the water flowing through canal N drags 
it into the different basins P, S, T, X. When it appears 
that the water drags no more particles of black crust, the 
valve No. 2, at the bottom, is opened, and then the water 
carries off' the white crust into the basins 5, 7, 8. When 
the water of these black and white crusts have arrived into 
their respective basins, or otherwise when the vat is emptied 
of whatever kind of crust, the valve JNo. 2 is shut as well the 
cock B, and the vat is replenished with husks. 

While this operation is going on again, a man placed near the basins, 
armed with a long pole at the extremity of which there is a 



79 



scraper or rake, passes it lightly over the surface of the water 
in the basin, and thrusts it into the corners, so that the oil 
and the different other particles of the fruit come to the top : 
upon which he takes a short-handled perforated ladle, and 
what is still better, a hair sieve, with which he gathers all that 
is on the surface to throw it into a little tub or what- 
ever kind of wooden recipient he may have close by. He 
goes on with this work till the water of the different basins, 
without being agitated, shews nothing more on its surface ; 
upon which he carries his bucket over to the boiler 13, into 
which he empties the contents. This boiler is half full of 
water, which is allowed to boil until the smoke is quite white 
and thick ; which is a sign that the water has evaporated 
sufficiently, and that also the paste is thick enough. 

The workman takes the substance out with a large ladle, and fills 
the baskets, 15 ; these are put one above the other. This 
done, four men — two placed at both handspikes, which are 
introduced into the opening 16 — turn the vice that presses 
the oil into the buckets ready to receive it. When these 
buckets are full, other ones are put instead, and the first are 
emptied into earthenware jars, at the bottom of which the oil 
deposes a lot of sediment. 

The whole of the paste or doughy water is not taken away during 
the operation. It is necessary also to leave a certain quantity 
at the bottom of the boiler, in order that the boiler should 
not be burned, and that there should be time to fetch some 
water from the tubs. 

As soon as the pi ess acts on the baskets, boiling water is sprinkled 
on the outside of these baskets. This water helps to detach 
from the outside those particles of oil which otherwise would 
not drop down. They flow, with the other oil, then into the 
same tubs. The whole is then put into jars ; and as water is 
heavier than oil, the former goes to the bottom, while the 
other floats on the surface. The whole is allowed to rest for 
a few days, during which all the sediment, earthy sub- 
stances, &c, separate from the oil and go the bottom of the 
water, and then by means of a small cane, fitted to the jar, 
the cock is opened. The sediment is the first to come out, 
and it is carried over to the boiler to be boiled over again ; 
afterwards comes the water. Then, when the oil begins to 
shew, the cock is stopped. This oil is put in casks ; but there 
are some people who put it again into other jars, which opera- 
tion naturally purifies it still more. 

Let us go back to the vats with the different kinds of crusts. 

After having gathered as much as possible of the oleaginous part, 
and the different particles of fruit, a workman armed with 
another instrument, 9, nearly similar to the one used by 
masons for mixing sand with lime to make mortar, agitates 
the bottom of the basins, towards where the sediment with 
the other particles has been precipitated ; then all the 
oleaginous and light particles that float on the top are taken 
away. This operation is repeated often, and when one believes 
that there is nothing more to be taken away from the basins 
P, S, T, X, the valve is opened in the basin X, to allow the 
water and sediment to flow away. Even this sediment could 



80 



be boiled over again, and would give a little oil, for even if 
there were basins for half-a-mile, even the last would give 
some particles. 

The husks, after having been taken away from the press, are made 
use of to keep up the fire under the boiler, and the water 
boiling. These husks form also an exccellent kind of grease. 

As to the white crust, or remainder of the kernels that remain in 
the basins 5, 7, 8, they have to undergo the same operations 
as the black crust. Finally, the valve is opened ; but, as this 
basin is furnished with an iron grate, it is only the water that 
can escape, and the white crust remains dry. This crust is 
sold for heating the furnaces, and the profit made with it is 
sufficient to pay the wages of the men employed in the 
refinery. 




KNAURS, OR EMBRYO 



BUDS. 




D 



I 



I 



BUILDING. 





receiver under level of press -floor 




Ancient Oil-M i ll and Presses 

ruins of Em el 'Awamid, Palestine . 



INDEX. 



A. 

Acclimatisation of Plants, 20. 

„ Society of Queensland, 13, 14. 

Acids, Purification by means of, 59. 
Adulteration of Oil, 53. 

„ Pickled Olives, 42. 

Africa, Cultivation in, 12. 
Algeria, Cultivation in, 12. 
Almunecar, Mill used at, 49. 
America, Southern States of, Cultivation in, 12. 
Andalusia, Olives of, 38. 

„ Saying in, about Cordova, 43. 
Antioch, Plantations about, 70. 
Appliances, Machinery and, 45 to 50. 
Arab method of Manufacture, 46, 54, 57. 
' Ash,' The, of same natural order, 12. 
Aspect, 12, 17, 22. 

B. 

Bags used for enclosing Pulp in the Press, 49. 
Bark, Uses of the, 39. 

Barlee, The Hon. F. P., Colonial Secretary of West Australia, 54. 
Beating, Gathering by, 37, 68. 

Boothby, Mr. W. E., Sheriff of South Australia, 67. 
Buildings, Mill, 48. 

Butter, Olive Oil a substitute for, 17, 42. 

C. 

Cake, Oil, or Marc, 43, 62. 

Cairncross, Mr. Win., 14. 

Capital, Small, required for Oil making, 45. 

Castile Soap, 43. 

Cattle, Oilcake as food for, 43, 62. 

Caustic Soda, Purification by means of, 60. 

Chamber of Manufactures, Adelaide, 18. 

Chili, Cultivation in, 12. 

Cisterns for Settlement, 57, 58. 

Clay Soils, 22. 

Climate, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18. 

Cloth, Manufacture of, Use of Oil in, 42, 43. 

Cogan's Process of Purification, 59. 

Color of Oil, 53. 

the Olive, 36. 
Compost heap, 32. 

Cookery, Use of Oil in, 17, 42, 52, 70. 
Cordova, Use of Oil in, 43. 
Corfu, Cultivation in, 12. 



11. 



Cream, Olive Oil a substitute for, 42. 
Crushing, 51 to 53. 
Cultivation, 30 to 35. 

„ between the Trees, 30, 31. 
Cuttings of the Branches, 23. 

Eoot, 23. 

Cuttings. (See also " Truncheons.") 

D. 

Davenpokt, The Hon. S., of South Australia, 8, 18, 43, 48. 

Depth of Soil, 30. 

Distance apart, 19, 28, 34, 70. 

Drainage, 22, 25, 26, 30. 

Duncan, Mr. W. A., 24. 

E. 

Egypt, Cultivation in, 12, 14. 

Elaine, 44. 

Embryo^Euds, 29. 

" Enfer" Reservoirs, 55. 

Experimental ground for Seedlings, 25. 

Extraction of the Oil, 51 to 56. 

F. 

Fat, Olive Oil a substitute for, 17. 
Fermentation of Fruit, 38, 47, 48, 51, 52. 
Flavor of Oil, 53. > 
Flowers of the Olive, 11. 
Food for Cattle, Oilcake as, 43. 

„ Use of Olives and Oil for, 39, 42. 
France, Cultivation in, 12. 
French Olives in bottle, 42. 
Frost, Effect of, 12. 
Fruit of the Olive, J 1. 

„ Keeping qualities of, 17. 

Fuel, Use of Oilcake as, 43. 

G. 

Gallipoli, Storing Oil at, 56, 57, 58. 
G-athering. (See " Harvesting.") 
Geelong, Tweed Factory of, 43. 
Gleaning Olives, 69. 
Grafting, 25, 26, 28, 66, 69. 
Green soiling, 31. 

Growth, Slow, modified by Cultivation, 17. 

H. 

Habitat, Natural, 12. 

Hand-gathering, 37, 67. 

Harvest, Duration of, 38. 

Harvesting, 34, 36, 51, 52, 68. 

Height of the Olive, 11. 

Holes, Depth of, 30. 

Hong Kong, Cultivation in, 12. 

Het Air, Purification by means of, 57, 59. 



111. 



I. 

Implements, 31, 45, 49. 

' Infernal Regions, Oil of the, 5 55. 

Italian Proverbs founded on the Olive, 15, 16, 

Italy, Cultivation in, 12. 

J. 

Jabs, Stone, used for Storing, 48, 56. 

K. 

Kernels, Oil from the, 51. 
Knaurs, or Embryo Buds, 29. 

L. 

Laboe of the Olive, 70. 

" Land and the Book," ."References to the, 46, 54, 70. 
Lard, Olive Oil a substitute for, 17. 
Layers, 23. 
Leaves, 11, 39. 

Lighting Purposes, Use of Oil for, 43. 
' Lilac ' of same natural order, 12. 
Lime, Presence of, in Soil beneficial, 21. 

,, Use of, for preserving Fruit, 41. 
Longevity of the Olive, 13, 15. 
Lubricator, Olive Oil as a, 16, 43. 
Lye, Object of Immersion of Fruit in, 41. 

M. 

Macabthue, Sir Wm, 17, 20. 

Machinery and Appliances, 45 to 50. 

Malaga, Huge Stone Jars used in, 48. 

Manufacture, 51 to 56. 

Manure, Oilcake used as, 43. 

Manuring, 21, 27, 31, 32, 67, 69. 

Marc, or Oilcake, 43. 

Margarine, 44. 

Maturity, Test of, 38. 

Mill not necessary for each Grower, 17. 

,, various Forms of, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49. 
Millstones, Description of, 47. 
Model Farms, 64. 

Models of Machinery, &c, in Museums, 65. 
Moisture of Soil, 22. 

,, continued, during Flowering, Effect of, 35. 
Morning Sun, 22. 
Morocco, Cultivation in, 12. 
Mulberry, Olive compared with, 13. 
Mulching, 22, 33. 

N. 

Neglect, Effect of, not irreparable, 13. 
Nut-galls, Purification by means of, 57. 



iv. 



0. 

Oil, in what part of the Fruit found, 12. 

Oilcake, 43, 62. 

Oil, Extraction of, 51 to 56. 

,, Use of, for lighting, 43. 

„ „ „ lubricating, 43. 

„ „ ,, Soap making, 43. 
„ in Cookery, 17, 42, 52. 

„ „ ,, Manufacture of Cloth, 42, 43. 
„ Surgery, 43. 
Olea Europsea, 11. 

Oleacece, Natural order of the Olive, 11. 
Oleine, 44. 

" Olive Plants about thy Table," supposed origin of saying, 71. 
Olive, the Common, Description, Habitat, &c, 11. 
Orange, Olive compared with the, 17. 

P, 

Palmitine, 44. 

Permanency, 15, 16. 

Picholines, 19, 40, 41, 42. 

Pickles, Use of Olives as, 39. 40, 41, 42, 70. 

Pliny, Appliances in days of, 45. 

„ Process of Grafting described by, 26. 
,, Opinion as to Temperature for Pressing, 53. 
Portugal, Cultivation in, 12, 13. 

„ Mode of pickling Olives in, 41. 
Press, Use and various Eorms of, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49. 
Pressing, Process of, 51 to 56. * 
' Privet ' of same natural order, 12. 
Propagation by Cuttings, 23. 

Grafting, 25, 66, 67, 69. 
„ Layers, 23. 

„ Root Cuttings, 23. 

„ Seedlings, 24. 

,, Suckers, 24. 

Truncheons, 26, 27, 28, 69. 
Uovoli, 29, 68. 
Proverbs founded on the Olive, 15, 16. 
Pruning, 33, 68. 
Purification, 56 to 60. 

a. 

Quincunx Method of Planting, 35, 68. 

R. 

Receipt for preparing Seeds for Sowing, 24. 

Receipts for pickling Fruit, 40, 41, 42. 

Receiver, Form of, 48. 

Refining, 48, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60. 

Reservoirs, 55. 

Resin, Olive, Use of, 39. 

Returns, 16. 

Ricci, Dr. Eugenio, Letter from, 68. 



Ripeness, Test of, 38. 

Rock Chambers for purifying Oil at Gallipoli, 57. 
Root Cuttings, 23. 

„ Wood, Use of, 39. 
Roots, rarely affected by Frost, 12. 

s. 

Sayings, Popular, with reference to the Olive, 15, 16. 

Schools, Technological, 63. 

Scriptural Allusions, 70, 71. 

Sea Air, Effect of, 13. 

Seed, Preparation of, for Sowing, 24. 

„ Selection of, 24. 
Seedlings, 19, 24, 25, 26, 66, 68. 
Settlement, Purification by means of, 56, 57, 58, 60. 
Shaking, Gathering by, 37, 70, 71. 

Silver Cloud, Effect of Breeze passing over a Plantation likened to a, 11. 
„ Poplar, 11. 

Simmonds' Opinion as to Climate of Australia for Olives, 15. 
Slow Growth modified by Cultivation, 17. 
Soap, Use of Oil in making, 43, 70. 
Soil, 17, 18, 21. 

South Australia, Chamber of Manufactures, Adelaide, 18. 
,, Cultivation in, 15, 19. 

„ Harvesting the Olive in, 62. 

Value of Oil, the local Product of, 62. 
Spain, Cultivation in, 12, 13. 
Spanish Appliances for making Oil, 45, 47, 48. 

,, Monks in Western Australia, Oil manufactured by, 54. 

Olives in Bottle, 42. 
,, Varieties, 38. 
Steam, Purification by means of, 57. 
Stearine, 44. 

Stem, Clear, proper Length of, 34, 68. 
Storing, 49, 51, 55, 56. _ 
Streets lighted with Olive Oil, 43. 
Suckers, 24, 71. 

Surgery, Use of Olive Oil in, 43. 
Syria, Mode of Gathering in, 37, 70, 71. 

T. 

Technological Teaching, 63. 
Temperature for Growing, Suitable, 12. 

,, Pressing, 53. 

Thenard's Process of Purification, 59. 

Thomson's, Dr. Wm., "Land and the Book," References to, 46, 54, 70. 
• Tinajas ' — Huge Stone Jars — of Malaga, 48. 
Traditionary Methods of growing and manufacturing, 49. 
Transplanting, 27. 
Trenching, 30. 

Truncheons, Propagation by, 26, 27, 28, 69. 

Turkey, Cultivation in, 12. 

Tweed Factory of Geelong, 43. 

Tweeds, Use of Oil in Manufacture of, 42, 43. 



vi. 



U. 

Uovoli, 29, 68. 

Uses, 13, 17, 39, 52, 70. 

V. 

Varieties, 18, 19. 

Vine, Olive compared with, 13. 

Virgin Oil, 53. 

W. 

Wateeing, 22, 27. 

Western Australia, Oil making in, 54. 
Westerly Aspect unsuited, 22. 
Wood, 39. 

Woollen Manufactures, Use of Oil in, 42, 43. 

Y. 

Yield and Value, 13, 61, 62, 70. 



BEISBANE : 
JAMBS C. BEAL, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, 
WILLIAM STREET. 



THE OLIVE AND ITS PRODUCTS. 



A TREATISE ON THE 



HABITS, CULTIVATION, AND PROPAGATION 
OF. THE TREE: 



AND UPON THE 



MANUFACTURE OF OIL AND OTHER PRODUCTS THEREFROM, 



IBY LEWIS BERNAYS, IB\L S., 

CLERK. OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF QUEENSLAND, ONE OF THE VICE 
PRESIDENTS OF THE QUEENSLAND ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY, 
Etc.. Etc., Etc. 



BRISBANE: 
JAMES C. BEAL, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WILLIAM STREET. 

1872 



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